Class l 




i r\ 



( ) ■ 






Book 






Copyright}) . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



KERNF TT 'S ABRIDGMENT 



OF 



MURRAY'S 

Bnglish Grammar 



REVISED BY 

CHARLES H. McCARTHY, Ph. D. 

Professor of American History- 
Catholic University of America. 




Metropolitan Press 

JOHN MURPHY COMPANY 

Publishers 
baltimore new york 






Copyright, 1911, by 

JOHN MURPHY COMPANY 

All rights reserved 



v 



1 - 



Press of JOHN MURPHY COMPANY, Baltimore 



©CI.A293717 



PREFACE 

The merits of Kerney's Abridgment of Murray's 
English Grammar account for the many editions that 
have been offered to the public. The present retains 
all these advantages, and adds materially to their 
number. These improvements can not be appreci- 
ated, however, without a comparison of this with the 
edition immediately preceding. 

The former editions defined English Grammar as 
the "Art of speaking and writing the English lan- 
guage with propriety." As far as it goes, this is cor- 
rect, but it is not complete, for grammar is not only 
an art, but a science; 'that is, it has a definite sub- 
ject matter, a body of classified knowledge and an 
efficient method. Moreover, it is believed that the 
word "propriety," in the old definition, does not sug- 
gest to the beginner an idea so distinct as does the 
more familiar term, correctly. This explanation in- 
dicates the nature of some of the improvements. 

Other alterations will appear from an examination 
of the section which treats of Orthography. In that 
part it will be observed that exercises in "false or- 
thography" have been removed from a miscellaneous 
Appendix and placed in a division of the Grammar 
to which logically they belong. This section was fur- 
ther improved by rewriting the table of vowel sounds, 
after a comparison with our best dictionary, the un- 
finished work of Murray. The table of consonant 
sounds was adopted from The English Language, a 



4 Preface. 

scholarly work by Professor Meiklejohn. In brief, 
this part of the Grammar has been rearranged and 
made to include the results of the latest research. 

In the division on Etymology many changes have 
been made. Several parts of speech have been de- 
fined with more simplicity and greater precision. 
Except for omitting the solemn style, perferred by 
the Quaker principles of Murray, the conjugations 
stand as in the old edition. While we are conscious 
'of a considerable difference in meaning between I 
shall be and I icill be, we have given, as for genera- 
tions others have given, what may be called the tra- 
ditional form, / shall or will be. 

The section on Grammatical Analysis has been 
considerably enlarged, and two methods have been 
offered. This, however, should produce no confusion, 
for they can easily be harmonized by any intelligent 
teacher. If there is any objection to the method of 
analysis by diagram, that part may be omitted. The 
importance of analysis being universally recognized, 
it may be objected that even this more ample treat- 
ment is still somewhat meagre. This criticism is of 
value only in those rare cases in which an instructor 
is not intelligent enough either to find or invent con- 
structions illustrating those principles that he de- 
sires to teach. In so extreme a case no grammar 
will be of much assistance. Every sentence that has 
been parsed can be analyzed also, and these, together 
with the exercises in false syntax, will afford mate- 
rial enough to impart all the essentials of grammar. 

Modifications and additions have changed consid- 
erably the section on Versification,. and, to a slighter 



Preface. 5 

extent, that part which discusses the principles of 
prose composition. 

This little volume is not designed to be compre- 
hensive; still less is its purpose to invade the domain 
of philology. It includes, however, as much gram- 
matical information as most intelligent people have 
in solution. Further to perfect the pupil in this 
science, we would recommend not a supplementary 
course in a more complete grammar, but scientific 
instruction in rhetoric, a generous amount of good 
reading and as much linguistic training as circum- 
stances will permit. It is only by the effort to trans- 
late his own language into another that the student 
will ever acquire a critical knowledge of English. 
To take up the study of other tongues the careful 
use of this book will afford a sufficient foundation. 
It will also serve as an adequate introduction to the 
study of composition and rhetoric. 

C. H. McC. 

Washington, D. C, 

January 8, 1911. 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

ORTHOGRAPHY.— Chapteb I 9 

Chapteb II __ 21 

ETYMOLOGY.— Chapter I— Parts of Speech 23 

Chapteb II— The Article __ 26 

Chapteb III — The Noun. . _ 28 

Chapteb IV — The Adjective 35 

Chapteb V — The Pronoun 38 

Chapteb VI — The Verb — 44 

Chapteb VII— The Adverb _ 69 

Chapteb VIII — The Preposition 70 

Chapteb IX — The Conjunction 71 

Chapteb X — The Interjection __ 73 

SYNTAX 74 

Analysis ___ 75 

Rules of Syntax _ 80 

PROSODY __ _ 107 

Accent _ 107 

Quantity __ 107 

Emphasis __ 108 

Pauses _ 108 

Tones 109 

Versification _ 109 

Poetry __ 109 

Rhythm _ __ 109 

Rhyme __ 109 

Poetical Feet __ 110 

Poetic Pauses _ 112 

Punctuation 113 

The Comma... __ 113 

The Semicolon _ 116 

The Colon. . c . _ 117 



8 Index. 

PROSODY— page. 

Punctuation — The Period _ . 117 

Other Marks __ . 118 

Use of Capitals _ 119 

Review Exercises in Syntax ... 122 

The Same Words as Different Parts of Speech .125 

PROSE STYLE. .__ 127 

Perspicuity _ 127 

Purity __ 127 

Propriety _ 128 

Precision 129 

Clearness _ 131 

Unity of Sentence 132 

Strength of Sentence 133 

Figures of Speech _ 137 

Epistolary Writing 141 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



English Grammar is the science that tells us how to 
speak and write the English language correctly. It con- 
siders every part of language from the nature of the 
alphabet to the principles of sentence construction. 

It is divided into four parts, viz., Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART I. 
ORTHOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER I. 

1. Orthography, the first part of grammar, treats 
of letters, syllables, separate words and spelling. Lan- 
guage is made up of words, and they are composed of 
letters. 

A letter is a character or mark that stands for one or 
more of the elementary sounds of language. 

The letters of the English language, called the xAlpha- 
bet, are twenty-six in number. 

These letters represent certain articulate sounds, the 
elements of the language. An articulate sound is a 
sound of the human voice formed by the organs of 
speech. 

1. What is English Grammar? How is it divided? Of what 
does Orthography treat? What is a letter? What are they called? 
What are these letters? What is an articulate sound? 



10 English Grammar. 

2. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel, from the old French vouel, is an articulate 
sound that can be perfectly uttered by itself. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

W and y are consonants when they begin a word or 
syllable, but in every other situation they are vowels. 

A consonant, Lat. con with; sono sound, is an articu- 
late sound that cannot be perfectly uttered without the 
aid of a vowel : as b, d, f, I. It is clear that b and d can 
not be pronounced without the assistance of the vowel e, 
and that / and I begin with the short sound of e. 

2. How are letters divided? What is a vowel? What is said of 
w and yt What is a consonant? 



Orthography. 11 

Note.— The following is a list of the Roman, Italic and 
Old English characters. The Old English letters were in 
use as late as the fifteenth century. 



Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Name. 


A 


a 


A 


a 


A 


a 


ax. 


B 


b 


B 


b 


% 


b 


bee. 


C 


c 


C 


c 


01 


r 


see. 


D 


d 


B 


d 


19 


& 


dee. 


E 


e 


E 


e 


IE 


* 


ee. 


F 


f 


F 


f 


3 


f 


ef. 


G 


S 


a 


9 


<g 





jee. 


H 


h 


H 


h 


* 


I? 


aitch. 


I 


i 


I 


i 


21 


i 


i or eye. 


J 


J 


J 


J 


3 


\ 


jay. 


K 


k 


K 


k 


5K 


k 


hay. 


L 


1 


L 


I 


'£ 


I 


el. 


M 


m 


M 


m 


ffl 


m 


em. 


N 


n 


N 


n 


N 


tt 


en. 


O 











© 


n 


0. 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


pee. 


Q 


q 


Q 


a 


<$ 


fl 


cue. 


R 


r 


E 


r 


% 


r 


ar. 


S 


s 


S 


s 


& 


B 


ess. 


T 


t 


T 


t 


® 


t 


tee. 


TJ 


u 


TJ 


u 


ai 


tt 


u or you. 


V 


V 


V 


V 


i 


u 


vee. 


W 


w 


W 


w 


m . 


tti 


double u. 


X 


X 


X 


X 


3C 


X 


eks. 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


1 


U 


wy. 


Z 


z 


Z 


z 


z 


I 


zee. 



12 



English Grammar. 



A perfect alphabet of any language would contain a 
number of letters, precisely equal to the number of ele- 
mentary sounds belonging to that language, and each 
simple sound would be represented by its own distinct 
character. This, however, is far from being the state of 
the English alphabet. In our language we have forty- 
three elementary sounds, and, therefore, should have 
an alphabet containing forty-three letters. As we have 
only twenty-six letters, some of them must have more 
than one simple sound. 

The following table represents most of the vowel 
sounds : 

A has eight simple sounds — 
1. a, as in ale, fate. 



2. a, as in sen-ate, preface. 

3. a, as in cctre, parent 

4. a, as in am, fat. 8. 

E has five sounds — 

1. The long e, as in me, here, eve. 
' 2. The short e, as in met, let, end. 

3. e, as in de-pend', se-rene'. 

4. e, as in e-ver, cin'-der. 



5. a, as in arm, alms. 

6. a, as in ask, grass. 

7. a, as vn. final, mad' am. 

8. a, as in any—e. 



6. e, as in sergeant = a. 

I has four sounds— 

1. The long i, as in pine, tile. 

2. The short i, as in p%n, sin. 

has seven sounds — 

1. o, as in note, bold. 

2. o, as in to-bac f co. 

3. 6, as in orb, Ibrd. 

4. o, as in odd, for'-est. 

U has seven sounds — 

1. u, as in use, duty. 

2. u, as in urn. 

3. ti, as in up, study. 

4. u, as in cir'-cus. 



as in po-lice. 
as in sir. 



5. o, as in soft, dog. 

6. o, as in con-nect', corn-bine' 

7. o, as in prove. 



5. u, as in busy = i. 

6. u, as in pull. 

7. u, as in rude = oo in rood. 



Orthography. 



13 



From an examination of this table, it will be seen that the 
five vowels alone have thirty-one simple sounds. The sound 
of i in police, however, is the same as that of e in me, and 
o in prove is the same as u in rude. Except the sound of i 
in pique, the vowel y has all the sounds of i. 

CONSONANT SOUNDS. 



Mutes 


Nasal 


Spirants" 




Flat 

(or Soft) 


Sharp 
(or Hard) 




Flat 
. (or Soft) 


Sharp 
(or Hard) 






e 

(in gig) 


k 


ng 




h 












3 


ch 
Cchurch) 




y 
(yea) 












r 


Palatal I 








zh 
(azure) 


sh 
(sure) 


Sibilants f 








Dental { 








z 

(prize) 


s 


1 


Sibilants f 










d 


t 


n 


th 
(bathe) 


th 
(bath) 










b 


P 


m 


v, w 


f, wh 























The letters c, q, x, w and y are superfluous letters; Jc rep- 
resents many of the sounds of c, and s represents still other 
sounds of c. The sounds of x may be denoted by gs or k$, 
etc. This shows that our alphabet is redundant; that is, it 
has some letters that are not needed. As we have not one 
letter for each of the forty-three elementary sounds, it is 
also defective. 



Note.— The table of consonant sounds reproduced here is 
taken from Meiklejohn's valuable work, The English Lan 
guage. 



14 English Grammar. 

3. CONSONANTS are divided into mutes and semi- 
vowels. The mutes can not be sounded at all without 
the aid of a vowel. They are b, p, d } t, h, with c and g 
hard. The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of them- 
selves. They are f, I, m, n, r, s, v, z, x, with c and g soft. 
In the preceding table these are mostly classed as nasals 
and spirants. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are also 
called liquids, from their readily uniting with other con- 
sonants, and flowing, as it were, into their sounds. A 
further subdivision of the consonants is indicated in the 
table. 

4. A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced 
by a single impulse of the voice: as ea in beat, ou in 
sound, oi in boil. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced 
in like manner : eau in beauty, iew in view. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels 
are sounded : as oi in voice, ou in ounce. An improper 
diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded: ea in 
eagle, oa in boat. 

~Note. — A more exact definition of a vowel and a conso- 
nant may be given in the following words: A vowel is a 
simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, and formed by a 
continual effusion of the breath, without any alteration in 
the position of the mouth, or any motion of the organs of 
speech, from the moment the vocal sound begins until it 
ends. 

A consonant is a simple, articulate sound, imperfect in 
itself, but which, joined to a vowel, forms a complete sound, 
by a particular motion of the organs of speech. That w and 
y are consonants, when used as initials, appears evident 
from their not admitting the indefinite article an before 
them ; as it would be improper to say, an walnut, an yard ; 
and from their following a vowel, without any difficulty of 

3. How are consonants divided? What is said of the mutes, and 
what are they? What have the semi-vowels, and what are they? 
How are four of the semi-vowels distinguished, and why? 

4. What is a diphthong? What is a triphthong? What is a 
proper diphthong? What is an improper diphthong? 



Orthography. 15 

utterance; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they are 
vowels in other situations is evident from their regularly 
taking the sound of other vowels ; as w has the exact sound 
of u in saw, few, new, etc., and y that of i in hymn, fly, etc. 
Consonants are named from the organs of speech chiefly 
employed in pronouncing them, as labial, dental, guttural or 
nasal. The labials are those formed by the lips, as p, b, /, v. 
The dentals are those formed by the teeth, as t, d, s, z and 
g soft. The guttural are formed from the throat, as k, g, e. 
The nasal are pronounced through th3 nose, as m, n. The 
mutes are divided into pure and impure. The pure are 
those whose sounds can not be at all prolonged, as k, p, t. 
The impure are those whose sounds may be continued, 
though for a very short space, as b, d, g. The semi-vowels 
may be subdivided into vocal and aspirated. The vocal are 
those formed by the voice; they are 7, m, n, r, v, iv, y, z. 
The aspirated are formed by the breath ; they are /, h, s, th 
and sh. The sound of c is hard before a, o, u, r, t and I, 
as cart, cottage, curious, craft, cloth, etc., and when it ends 
a syllable, as victim, etc. ; it has the soft sound before e, i 
and y, as face, civil, cymbal, mercy, etc. G is hard before 
a, o, u, I and r, as game, gone, gull, glory, grandeur; and 
also at the end of words, as bag, nag, dog ; but it has gen- 
erally the soft sound before e, i and y, as genius, ginger , 
Egypt. 

EXERCISE. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
The dark unf athomed caves of ocean bear ; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

"Vital spark of- heavenly flame, 
Quit, oh ! quit this mortal frame, 
Trembling, hoping, lingering, flying, . 
Oh ! the pain, the bliss of dying ! 

SPELLING must be learned not wholly from rules, 
though they are of considerable value, but from observa- 
tion in reading, from the dictionary, and, where spelling 
is taught formally, from the spelling book. 

1. Point out the vowels. Point out the consonants. Point out 
the words in which w and y are vowels. In what words are they 
consonants, and why? 

2. Point out the mutes. Point out the semi-vowels. 



16 English Grammar. 

Rules for Spelling and Exercises in False Orthography. 

Rule 1. — Monosyllables ending in f, 1, or s, preceded 
by a single vowel, double the final consonant: as staff, 
mill, pass, &c. The chief exceptions are of, if, as, is, 
has, was, gas, yes, his, this, us, clef, sal,' bul, pus and 
thus. 

It is no great merit to spel properly ; but a great defect to 
do it incorrectly. 

Leaning on the top of his staf, Jacob worshiped his Cre- 
ator. 

We may place too little, as well as too much stres upon 
dreams. 

Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively re- 
fined. 

Rule 2. — Monosyllables ending in any consonant but f, 
1 or s, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the 
final consonant; excepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, 
inn, purr, buzz, and several others. 

A carr signifies a chariot of war, or a small carriage of 
burden. 

In the names of druggs and plants, the mistake in a word 
may endanger life. 

The finn of a fish is the limb by which he balances his 
body, and moves in the water. 

Many a trapp is laid to ensnare the feet of youth. 

Rule 3. — Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal 
nouns, past participles, comparatives and superlatives, by 
changing y into i : as spy, spies ; I carry, thou earnest ; he 
carrieth or carries ; carrier, carried ; happy, happier, hap- 
piest. 

The present participle in ing retains the y ; that i may 
not be doubled : as carry, carrying ; bury, burying, &c. 

But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the 
above, is not changed: as boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys, 



Orthography. 17 

cloyed, &c. ; except in lay, pay and say ; from which are 
formed laid, paid and said; and their compounds, un- 
paid, unsaid, &c. 

We should subject our fancys to the government of reason. 

If thou art seeking for the living amongst the dead, thou 
wearyest thyself in vain. 

If we have denyed ourselves sinful pleasures, we shall be 
great gainers in the end. 

Rule 4. — "Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a 
consonant, commonly change y into i : as happy, happily, 
happiness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very 
rarely changed in the additional syllable : as coy, coyly ; 
boy, boyish, boyhood; annoy, annoyed, annoyance; joy, 
joyless, joyful, &c. 

It is a great blessing to have a sound mind, uninfluenced 
by fancyful humors. 

Common calamities and common blessings fall heavyly 
upon the envious. 

The comelyness of youth are modesty and frankness ; of 
age, condescension and dignity. 

It is sinful to indulge in vilifycation. 

Rule 5. — Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, double that consonant when they take an- 
other syllable beginning with a vowel : as wit, witty ; thin, 
thinnish ; to abet, an abettor ; to begin, a beginner. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the 
preceding syllable, the consonant remains single: as to 
toil, toiling; to offer, an offering; maid, maiden, &c. 

When we bring the lawmaker into contempt, we have in 
effect annuled his laws. 
. By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows. 

The pupils should be permited to ask questions. 

We all have many faillings and lapses to lament 

The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things that 
the heathen philosophers allowed. 



18 English Grammar. 

Rule 6. — Words which end in double 1 and take ness, 
less, ly, or ful, after them, often omit one 1, as fulness, 
skilless, fully, skilful. The best authorities, however, 
also write fullness and skillful. The final letter must 
not be trebled in the derivative. 

In that art he was not skilll-ess. 

To recommend virtue to others, our lights must shine 
brightly, not dullly. 

Rule 7. — Ness, less, ly and ful, added to words ending 
with silent e, do not cut it off: as paleness, guileless, 
closely, peaceful, except in a few words : as duly, awful. 
See also Rule 8. 

The warmth of disputation destroys that sedatness of 
mind which is necessary to discover truth. 

In all our reasonings, our minds should be sincerly em- 
ployed in the pursuit of truth. 

The true worship of God is an important and aweful 
service. 

Rule 8. — Ment, added to words ending in silent e, gen- 
erally preserve the e from elision: as abatement, chas- 
tisement, incitement, &c. The words lodgment, judg- 
ment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations from 
the rule. 

Like other terminations, it changes y into i, when pre- 
ceded by a consonant: as, accompany, accompaniment; 
merry, merriment. 

The study of the English language is making daily ad- 
vancment. 
A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improvment. 

Rule 9. — Able and ible, when incorporated into words 
ending with silent e, almost always cut it off: as blame, 
blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible, &c. ; but if c or g 
soft comes before e in the original words, the e is then 
preserved in words compounded with able: as change, 
changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c. 



Orthography. 19 

Every person and thing connected with self, is likely to 
appear good and desireable in our eyes. 

The divine laws are not reverseible by those of men. 

Gratitude, is a forceible and active principle in generous 
minds. 

Our natural defects of body are not chargable upon us. 

Rule 10. — When ing or ish is added to words ending 
in silent e, the e is almost universally omitted : as place, 
placing; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish. 

An obligeing and humble disposition is totally unconnected 
with a servile and cringing humor. 

By solaceing the sorrows of others, the heart is improved, 
at the same time that our duty is performed. 

Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. 

The inadvertencies of youth may be excused, but knaveish 
tricks should meet with severe reproof. 

Rule 11. — In composition words often drop those let- 
ters which were superfluous in their simples : as handful, 
withal, also^ chilblain, spoonful. 

Love worketh no ill to our neighbor, and is the fulfilling 
of the law. 

That which is sometimes expedient, is not a 11 ways so. 

We may be hurtfnll to others as well by our example, as 
by inflicting personal injuries. 

Where diligence opens the door of the understanding, and 
impartiality keeps it, truth also finds an entrance and a 
wellcome. 

Exercises in False Orthography. 

It may be true, but your story is not convinceing. 

To be faithful among the faithless, argues great strength 
of principal. 

Wars are regulated robberries and pyracies. 

The piramids of Egypt have stood more than three thou- 
sand years. 

True happyness is an enemy to pomp and noize. 

There is an inseperable connection between piety and 
virtue. 



20 English Grammar. 

Many actions have a fair complection, which have not 
sprung from virtue. 

Which way soever we turn ourselves, we are ineountered 
with sensable demonstrations of a Diety. 

If we forsake the ways of virtue we can not alledge any 
color of ignorance, or want of instruction. 

Man is incompassed with dangers innumerable. 

War is attended with distresful and desolating effects. It 
is confesedly the scourge of our angry passions. 

The earth is the Lord's and the fullnes thereof. 

The greater our incitments to evil, the greater will be our 
reward. 

We should not incourage persons to do what they beleive 
to be wrong. 

Virtue is placed between two extreams which are equally 
blameable. 

We should continually have the gaol in our view, which 
would direct us in the race. 

It can not be said that we are charitable doners, when our 
gifts proceed from selfish motives. 

Straight is the gait and narrow the way that lead to life 
eternal. 

Integrity leads us strait forward, disdaining all doubleings 
and crooked paths. 

Licenciousness and crimes pave the way to ruin. 

Words are the countres of wise men, but the money of 
fools. 

Meekness controuls our angry passions; candor, oar se- 
vere judgements. 

He is not only a descendent from pious ancesters, but 
an inheriter too of their virtues. 

Verbs are often derived from nouns ; as, from salt, to salt; 
also from adjectives and adverbs; as, length, to lengthen, 
short, to shorten, forward, to forward. Nouns are derived 
from adjectives ; as, from white, whiteness, good, goodness. 
Adjectives are derived from nouns : as, from health, healthy, 
joy, joyful, care, careless. Nouns are also derived from 
other nouns: as, from king, kingdom, law, lawyer, senate, 
senator. Adverbs are derived from adjectives: as, from 
slow, sloivly, base, basely, able, ably. 



Orthography. 21 

EXERCISE. 

Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind, 
Sees God in clouds, or hears Him in the wind. 
His soul, proud science never taught to stray, 
Far as the solar walk or milky way. 

And thou, who, mindful of the unhonor'd dead, 

Doest in these lines their artless tale relate, 

By night and lonely contemplation led 

To wander in the gloomy walks of fate, 

Hark ! how the sacred calm that breathes around, 

Bids every fierce tumultuous passion cease. 

Man, earth, healthy, oak, manhood, earthly, 
Toil, careless, child, toilsome, joyful, fruit, 
Joy, manful, childish, childhood, sin, kind, 
Sinful, lover, kindness, white, fruitful, oaken. 

1. Point out the words containing but one syllable. What words 
contain two or more syllables? 

2. Point out the monosyllables ; the dissyllables ; the trisyllables ; 
the polysyllables. 

3. Point out the primitive words in the above section Point 
out the derivative words. From what are they derived? 



CHAPTER II. 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 



1. A Syllable is a sound, either simple or compound, 
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and consti- 
tuting a word, or part of a word : as a, an, ant. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper 
letters. A word has as many syllables as it has separate 
sounds. 

2. Words are articulate sounds used by common con- 
sent as signs of our ideas. By the form of a word is 

1. What is a syllable? What is spelling? 

2. What are words? 



22 English Grammar. 

meant the letters of which it is made up. When we 
change the word man to men, we are said to change its 
form. 

A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable; a 
word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three 
syllables, a Trisyllable; and a word of four or more syl- 
lables, a Polysyllable. 

3. With respect to their form, all words are divided 
into primitive, derivative and compound. A primitive 
word is that which can not be reduced to any simpler 
word in the language : as, man, good, content. 

A derivative word is one which may be reduced to 
another English word of greater simplicity: as, manly, 
handful, goodness, contentment. 

A compound word is one that is made up of two or 
more simple words: as, mankind, knitting-needle, over- 
flow. Words such as mankind and overflow are some- 
times called permanent compounds. 

What is a monosyllable? a dissyllable? a trisyllable? a poly- 
syllable? 

3. What are all words? What is a primitive word? What is a 
derivative word? 



Etymology. 23 

PART II. 
ETYMOLOGY 

CHAPTEE I. 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. Etymology is the second part of Grammar, and 
treats of the different classes of words, their various 
modifications and their derivation. We have seen that, 
according to their form, words are divided into simple, 
derivative and compound. In other words, we have 
three classes. 

According to the nature of their use in sentences, there 
are in English nine sorts of words or, as they are com- 
monly called, Parts of Speech, namely, the Article, 
the Substantive or Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, 
the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction 
and the Interjection. In the sentence, He is a man, the 
term man is a primitive word. This considers its form 
only. In looking at its use, we see that it is a name, and, 
therefore, is a noun. Later, we shall see that it could 
have been used as a verb. 

1. An Article is a word prefixed to nouns, to point 
them out and show how far their signification extends: 
as a field, a house, an eagle, the woman. 

2. A Noun is a name : as London, man, virtue. 

Note. — Whatever has a name is a noun : a noun, therefore, 
may be known by asking the question, Is it the name of a 
thing? The word noun is more appropriate than substantive, 

1. What is the second part of Grammar and of what does it 
treat? In English, how many parts of speech, and what are they? 

1. What is an article? 

2. What is a noun? 



24 English Grammar. 

because it is much more general in its application; the latter 
in its literal sense, signifies something that has substance; the 
words idea, thought, spirit, angel, &c, are not properly sub- 
stantives, because they contain no substance, nothing that 
we can hear, taste, feel ; but they are nouns, because they 
are names. Any combination of words that stands for a 
name is also a noun. To skate is good exercise. The words 
to skate, being the name of a sport, are therefore equivalent 
to a noun. 

3. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to ex- 
press its quality: as an industrious man, a virtuous 
woman. 

Note. — An adjective simply expresses quality, and may be 
known by its making sense with the addition of the word 
thing: as, a good thing, a bad thing; or of any particular 
noun : as, a wise man, a humble mind, or by answering to 
the question, what is the quality of the noun? as, a sweet 
apple ; what is the quality of the apple? the answer is sweet, 

4. A Pronoun is a relational word. Pronouns often 
take the place of infinitives and clauses. Sometimes 
they stand for nouns; they also ask questions. It is a 
mistake to suppose that they were invented "to prevent a 
too frequent repetition of the noun." Who was it? In 
this brief sentence we have two pronouns, but neither is 
used to prevent a tiresome repetition of any noun. Of 
all the parts of speech, the Pronouns are fewest in num- 
ber, being about thirty-six, and the most comprehensive 
in application. 

Some familiar Pronouns are: I, thou, Tie, she, it; we, 
you, they; who, which, what, that, as, etc. From these 
forms we can derive others ; for example : from / we get 
my, mine, me. It is also compounded with self. By 
declining and compounding the simple Pronouns we get 
many others. 

5. A Verb is a word by which we make a statement or 
ask a question. 

3. What is an adjective? 

4. What is a pronoun? 

5. What is a verb? 



Etymology. 25 

Note. — A verb may be also thus defined: a word which 
expresses first, a state of being : as, to be, to live; or secondly, 
an action performed by some agent: as, "Washington liber- 
ated his country ;" or thirdly, the receiving of an action : as, 
"Washington was loved by his countrymen." A verb may 
be known by asking the question, "does the word express 
being, action, or the receiving of an action : if so, it is a verb. 

6. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, 
an adjective, and sometimes another adverb, to express 
some quality or circumstance respecting it: as he reads 
well; a truly good man ; he writes very correctly. 

Note. — The adverb may be generally known by its answer- 
ing to the question, how? as, he reads correctly ; 'how does he 
read? the answer is correctly. The words, here, there, no, 
not, how, now, often, justly, yes, why, more, most, are 
adverbs. 

7. A Preposition connects a noun or pronoun with 
some other word. It is prefixed to a noun or pronoun to 
make a qualifying phrase. It is not enough to say that 
a Preposition connects words, for conjunctions do that. 

Note. — Prepositions may be generally known by making 
sense with any of the personal pronouns in the objective 
case, after them, as, "with him, for her, by them, to you, in 
you, after them, on it, against me," &c. The distinction be- 
tween the proposition and the conjunction will be felt at 
once when we place a conjunction where a preposition is 
required. The youngest pupil will readily see that there is 
something wrong with the expression, John went and the 
town. This is the case of a conjunction doing duty for a 
preposition. Sense is restored by substituting, to for and: 
John went to the town. 

8. A Conjunction is a part of speech used to connect 
words, clauses or sentences. In the sentence, John and 
James are happy because they are good, it will be noticed 
that and connects two nouns ; also that because connects a 
dependent clause and a sentence. And, or and nor are 

6. What is an adverb? 

7. What is a preposition? 

8. What is a conjunction? 



26 English Grammar. 

frequently used to connect single words. Because, but, 
lest, though, unless and yet are frequently used. 

9. An Interjection is a word used to express some 
passion or emotion of the speaker : as "0 virtue ! how 
amiable thou art !" "Alas! I fear;" "Ah me !" 

Note. — The parts of speech have been variously defined 
arid named by different grammarians. Some have enumer- 
ated ten, making the participle a distinct part ; others eight, 
excluding the participle, and ranking the adjective under 
the noun ; others again four, and some only two, the noun 
and the verb. We have followed those authors who appear 
to have given them the most natural and intelligible dis- 
tribution. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE ARTICLES. 

1. An Article is a word prefixed to a noun to point 
it out and show how far its significance extends. It has 
something of the force of an adjective : as a garden, an 
eagle, the woman. 

In English there are but two articles, a and the: a be- 
comes an before a vowel, and silent h: as an acorn, an 
hour; but if the h be sounded, a only is used: as a 
hand, a heart, a highway. An is also used before nouns 
accented on the second syllable and beginning with a 
sounded h: as An heroic man, An historical essay. 

2. A or an is styled the indefinite article, because it is 
used in a vague sense to point out one thing of the kind : 
as "Give me a book/' "Bring me an apple." 

9. What is an interjection? 

Questions on the Articles. — 1. What is an article? In English, 
how many articles? What does a become before a vowel or silent hf 
If the h is sounded, what is used ? 

2. What is a or an styled? What is the called? How is a noun 
without an article taken? 



Etymology. 27 

The is called the definite article, because it ascertains 
what particular thing or things are meant, as : "Give me 
the book;" "Bring me the apples/' meaning some partic- 
ular book or apples referred to. 

A substantive without an article to limit it is generally 
taken in its widest sense : as "A candid temper is proper 
for man," that is, for all mankind. 

PARSING 

Parsing consists in naming the part of speech to 
which the word belongs, and stating every particular 
relating to it in its connection with other words in the 
sentence. Parsing is of two kinds — Etymological and 
Syntactical. Etymological parsing consists in showing 
what part of speech the word is, with its variations. 
Syntactical parsing shows the agreement one word bears 
to another in gender, number, person, case and govern- 
ment, and gives the rule of Syntax for the government 
or position of the word in the sentence. 

Rule for Parsing the ARTICLE 

State whether it is definite or indefinite, and point 
out the noun to which it belongs. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The Man — The is a definite article, and limits the noun 

"man." 

2. A Book — A is the indefinite article, limiting "book." 

3. An hereditary enemy. An is one of the forms of the 

indefinite article and relates to the noun enemy. 

EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 

A king. An acorn. An historian. An orange. The book. 

Questions on Parsing. — What is parsing? How many kinds of 
parsing? What is Etymological parsing? What is Syntactical pars- 
ing? How are the articles to be parsed? 



28 English Grammar. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE NOUN. 



1. A Substantive or Noun is a name: as city, 
virtue, fame. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and com- 
mon. To these divisions some grammarians would add 
abstract, collective and material. 

2. Proper Nouns are names appropriated to indi- 
viduals : as George, London, Thames: Common Nouns 

are class names : as animal, man, tree. "Darkness" is an 
abstract noun; people and army are collective nouns. 
Examples of material nouns are : marble, coal and gold. 

To substantives or nouns belong person, gender, num- 
ber and case. 

Person is that grammatical property which shows 
whether the speaker is meant, whether it is the person 
spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. There are 
three grammatical persons, viz. : the first person, of the 
speaker ; the second, or the person spoken to, and the 
third, the person or thing spoken of. 



Section II — GENDER 

1. In English, Gender is the distinction of nouns with 
regard to sex. There are four genders, the Masculine, 
the Feminine, the Common and the Neuter. 

Questions on the Nouns. — 1. What is a noun? How many kinds 
of nouns? 

2. What are proper nouns? What are common nouns? Name 
and illustrate three other kinds of nouns. What belongs to sub- 
stantives ? 



Etymology. 



29 



2. The masculine gender denotes animals of the male 
kind: as, man, horse, king. The feminine gender signi- 
fies animals of the female kind : as, woman, queen, hen. 
The common gender denotes either males or females, or 
both : as, children, parents, insects, servants. The neu- 
ter gender denotes objects which are neither males nor 
females : as, field, house, garden. 

Some nouns, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of 
speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender : 
as when we say of the sun,/ie is setting, and of a ship, 
she sails well. Animals are often regarded as male or 
female, not because of their sex, but by reason of their 
general character. Thus we say, the spider weaves her 
web, the fox made his escape. 

Our language has three methods of distinguishing the 
sexes. 

1. Bv different words : as 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


King, 


queen 


Boar, 


sow. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Lord. 


lady. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Man, 


woman. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Master, 


mistress. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Milter, 


spawner. 


Cock, 


hen. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Dog, 


bitch, slut. 


Ram, 


ewe. [singer 


Drake, 


duck 


Singer, 


songstressor 


Earl, 


countess. 


Sloven, 


slattern. 


Father, 


mother. 


Son, 


daughter. 


Friar, 


nun. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Steer, 


heifer. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Wizard, 


witch. 



30 English Grammar. 

2. By a difference of termination: as, 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot, 


abbess. 


Hunter, 


huntress. 


Actor, 


actress. 


Inheritor, 


inheritress. 


Administrator 


administratrix.Instructor, 


instructress. 


Adulterer, 


adulteress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress 


. Lion, 


lioness. 


Arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Auditor, 


auditress. 


Mayor, 


mayoress. 


Author, 


authoress. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Peer, 


peeress. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Bridegroom, 


bride. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Caterer, 


cateress. 


Prince, 


princess. 


Chanter, 


chantress. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Prophet, 


prophetess. 


Count, 


countess. 


Proprietor, 


proprietress. 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Protector, 


protectress. 


Deacon, 


deaconess. 


Shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


Director, 


directress. 


Songster, 


songstress. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


Elector, 


electress. 


Sultan, 


sultana. 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


Enchanter, 


enchantress. 


Testator, 


testatrix. 


Executor, 


executrix. 


Traitor, 


traitress. 


Fornicator, 


fornicatress. 


Tutor, 


tutoress. 


God, 


goddess. 


Tyrant, 


tyranness. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Victor, 


victress. 


Heir, 


heiress. 


Viscount, 


viscountess. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Votary, 


votress. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Widower, 


widow. 


3. By prefl 


xing a sex-word : as 




Cock- 


sparrow, 


hen-sparrow. 




Man-servant, 


maid-servant. 




He-goat, 


she-goat, 




He-bear, 


she-bear 




Male child, 


female child. 




Male descendants, 


female descendants. 



Etymology. 31 

Section III— Of NUMBER 

The Number of a word shows whether it refers to 
one object or to more than one. There are two num- 
bers, the singular and the plural. 

The singular number expresses but one object: as a 
chair, a table. The plural number signifies more objects 
than one : as chairs, tables. 

2. Some nouns, from the nature of the things that 
they express, are used in only the singular form: as 
wheat, gold, sloth, pride, &c. ; others in only the plural 
form : as bellows, scissors, ashes, &c. ; some are the same 
in both numbers : as deer, sheep, swine. 

3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s to the singular : as dove, doves; face, faces; pen, 
pens. 

But when the singular ends in x, ch, soft, sh, ss or s, 
the noun takes es in the plural : as box, boxes; church, 
churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses. If the noun ends 
in ch hard, the plural is formed by adding s: as monarch, 
monarchs. 

4. Nouns'ending in / or fe are rendered plural by the 
change of these terminations into ves: as half, halves; 
loaf, loaves; knife, knives; except grief, relief and some 
others which have s; those in ff have s: as muff, muffs. 

Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other 
vowel in the same syllable, change it into ie, and add s 
in the plural : as beauty, beauties; fly, -flies; but the y 
is not changed when there is another vowel in the sylla- 
ble : as key, keys; delay, delays. 

Note. — Some nouns are rendered plural by the change of a 
into e: as, man, men, woman, women; others by the change 
of oo into ee: as, foot, feet, goose, c/eese. ox and child, oxen 
and children. The word neivs is considered singular, and the 
noun means is used in both numbers. 



32 



English Grammar. 



The following table exhibits the method of forming 
the plural of those nouns which have been adopted from 
the Hebrew, Greek and Latin languages. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Cherub, 


oherubim. 


Datum, 


data. 


Seraph, 


seraphim. 


Effluvium, 


effluvia. 


Antithesis, 


antitheses. 


Encomium, 


encomia, or 


Automaton, 


automata. 




encomiums. 


Basis, 


bases. 


Erratum, 


errata. 


Crisis, 


crises. 


Genius, 


genii or 


Criterion, 


criteria. 




geniuses. 


Diaeresis, 


diaereses. 


Genus, 


genera. 


Ellipsis, 


ellipses. 


Index, 


indices or 


Emphasis, 


emphases. 




indexes. 


Hypothesis, 


hypotheses. 


Lamina, 


laminae. 


Metamorpho- 


metamorpho- 


Medium, 


media. 


sis, 


ses. 


Magus, 


magi. 


Phenomenon, 


phenomena. 


Memoran- 


memoranda, ot 


Appendix, 


appendices, or 


dum, 


memorandums 




appendixes. 


Radius, 


radii. 


Arcanum, 


arcana. 


Stamen, 


stamina. 


Axis, 


axes. 


Stratum, 


strata. 


Calx, 


calces. 


Vortex, 


vortices. 



Some words derived from the learned languages are 
confined to the plural : as antipodes, literati, &c. 

The following nouns, being in Latin, both singular 
and plural are used in the same manner when employed 
in our tongue : hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

Section IV— Of CASE 

1. In English, substantives have three cases, the Nomi- 
native, the Possessive and the Objective. 

The Nominative Case simply expresses the name of 
a thing, or the subject of a verb : as "The boy plays," 
"the girls learn." The italicized words, "boy" and 
"girls," are in the nominative case. 



Etymology. 33 

2. The Possessive Case expresses the relation of 
possession, origin or fitness, and may be known by having 
generally an apostrophe, with the letter s coming after 
it : as "My father's house," "the scholar's duty," "Morses 
telegraph," "mens neckties." 

When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but 
the apostrophe is retained: as "On eagles' wings," "the 
drapers' company." Sometimes also when the singular 
ends in ss, the apostrophic s is omitted: as "For good- 
ness' sake," "For righteousness' sake." 

3. The Objective Case expresses the object of an 
action or of a relation, and generally follows a transitive 
verb or a preposition : as "John assists Charles," "they 
live in London." 

Nouns in English are thus declined : 



'Nominative. 


Mother, 


Mothers. 


Possessive. 


Mother's, 


Mothers'. 


Objective. 


Mother, 


Mothers 


Nominative. 


Man, 


Men. 


Possessive. 


Man's, 


Men's. 


Objective. 


Man, 


Men. 



Note. — The nominative case may be known by asking who, 
or what performed the action? the answer to the question 
will be the nominative : as "Charles reads his lesson.' r Who 
reads? The answer is Charles; Charles is therefore in the 
nominative case. The objective after an active verb may be 
generally known by asking what was done? the answer is 
the objective case : as "Charles reads his lesson." Charles 
reads what? The answer is lesson; lesson is therefore in 
the objective case. 

Rule for Parsing a NOUN 

State whether it is proper or common ; give its gender, 
person, number and case; if it be the nominative case, 
point out the verb to which it is nominative, or tell what 
kind of nominative it is; if it be in the possessive or 
objective case, point out the word by which it is gov- 



34 English Grammar. 

erned, and repeat the rule of Snytax for such govern- 
ment. 

EXAMPLES. 

John broke the slate. 

John — is a proper noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number and nominative case to the verb "broke." 

Broke — is a verb. 

The — is the definite article, limiting "slate." 

Slate — is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, sin- 
gular number and objective case, governed by the 
verb "broke." 

The boy's hat contains apples. 

The — the definite article, limiting "hat." 

Boy's — a common noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, in the possessive case, and governs the 
noun "hat," according to the Seventh Rule of 
Syntax. 

Hat — a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular 
number and nominative case. 

Contains — is a verb. 

Apples — a common noun, neuter gender, third person, plural 
number and objective case, object of the active verb 
"contains," according to the Fourth Rule of Syntax. 

The army marched away. 

The — the definite article and relates to army. 

Army — collective noun, masculine gender, third person, singu- 
lar number, nominative case and subject of the verb 
"marched." The plural of army is armies. 

Marched — an active verb. 

Away — an adverb. 



exercises for parsing. 

Charies reads his lesson. He goes to London. 
The cars have arrived in the city. He runs. 
John lost his brother's cap. The dog barks. 



Etymology. 35 



CHAPTER IV. 

ADJECTIVES. 

1. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to ex- 
press its quality : as, an industrious man, a benevolent 
mind. It narrows the range of the noun and increases 
its meaning. 

In English, the adjective is not varied on account of 
gender, number or case : as a careless boy, careless girls. 
The only variation that it admits is that of comparison. 

Comparison. — There are three degrees of compari- 
son, namely, the Positive, the Comparative and the Su- 
perlative. Comparison is a property of adverbs as well 
as of adjectives. However, all adverbs and adjectives 
can not be compared. 

2. The positive degree expresses the quality of an 
object, without any increase or diminution : as good, wise, 
great. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the 
positive in signification : as wiser, greater, less ivise. 

The superlative expresses the quality in the highest 
or the lowest degree : as wisest, greatest, least wise. 

3. The comparative is formed by adding r or er to the 
positive : as wise, wiser; great, greater; and the superla- 
tive by adding st or est: as wise, wisest; great, greatest. 

The adverbs more and most, placed before adjectives, 
have the same effect : as more wise, most wise. 

Questions on Adjectives. — 1. What is an adjective? In English, 
what is said of the adjective? What variation does it admit? 

Questions on Comparison. — 2. What is the positive? the com- 
parative? the superlative? 

3. How is the comparative formed? How is the superlative 
formed? What effect have more and most? 



36 English Grammar. 

4. Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er 
and est; dissyllables, by more and most: as mild, milder, 
mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal. 

Some words have an irregular comparison: as good, 
better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, 
or many, more, most; and a few others. 

When an adjective, with the definite article before it, 
is used without a noun, it is taken as a noun : as The 
virtuous are always happy. Providence rewards the good 
and punishes the bad. 

Note, — Adjectives are of different kinds or classes, as fol- 
lows : Common, proper, numeral, participial and pronominal. 

Common Adjectives are such as express quality aud ad- 
mit of comparison: as good, wise, great, &c. 

Proper Adjectives are those which are derived from 
proper nouns, and are rarely compared: as English, Ameri- 
can, &c. 

Numeral Adjectives are those which express number, 
and are subdivided into Cardinal: as one, two, three, &c. 

Ordinal: as first, second, third, &c. ; and Multiplicative: 

as single, double, twofold, &c. 

Pronominal Adjectives are those which partake of the 
nature of a pronoun and adjective, and are more fully dis- 
cussed under the head of pronouns. When a participle is 
used as an adjective, it is called a Participial Adjective: 
as a loving child : a broken window. 

Some adjectives are not compared : as square, circular, 
&c. ; and those which in their simple form express the high- 
est or lowest degree : as chief, full, extreme, supreme, &c. 



RULE FOR PARSING AN ADJECTIVE. 

Tell its kind and state its degree of comparison, and 
point out the word it qualifies. 

4. How are monosyllables and dissyllables compared? What 
words have an irregular comparison? When is an adjective taken 
as a noun? What is the rule for parsing an adjective? 

What is the rule for parsing an adjective? 



Etymology. 37 



EXAMPLES. 



A sweet apple. Henry is older than Charles. William is 
the smallest boy in school. 

A — the indefinite article, limiting "apple." 

Sweet — is a common or descriptive adjective in the positive 

degree, qualifying "apple." 
Apple — a common noun of the neuter gender, third person, 

singular number. It has no case because it does not 

occur in a sentence. 

Henry — a proper noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, nominative case and subject of the 
verb is. 

Is — a neuter verb. 

Older — is a descriptive adjective of the comparative degree, 
qualifying "Henry." 

Than — a conjunction. 

Charles — a proper noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number and nominative case after the neuter 
verb "is," according to the 9th Rule of Syntax. 
Some authorities would make Charles nominative 
case to the verb is understood * * * than Charles is. 

William — a proper noun, masculine gender, &c, and nomi- 
native case to the verb "is." 

Is — a neuter verb. 

The — the definite article, limiting "boy." 

Smallest — is an adjective in the superlative degree, qualify- 
ing "boy." 

Boy — a common noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, nominative case after the verb "is." 

In — is a preposition. 

School — a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singu- 
lar number, in the objective case, and governed by the 
preposition "in," according to 5th Rule of Syntax. 

Two English Officers. Cooling Breezes. 

Tiro — a numeral adjective, of the cardinal kind. 
English — is a proper adjective, qualifying "officers." 
Officers — a common noun, masculine gender, third person, 
plural number. 

Cooling — a participial adjective, in the positive degree, 
qualifying "breezes." 

Breezes — a common noun, neuter gender, third person, plu- 
ral number. 



38 English Grammar. 

EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 

A good and wise man. A happy parent. 

An old coat. A mutual agreement. 

The sweetest flower and the tallest tree. 

The wiser head. The better world. A lofty oak. 

A British soldier. The crowning harvest. 

An American lady. The fourth child. 



CHAPTER V. 

PRONOUNS. 

1. The Pronoun lias already been defined. 

There are four kinds of pronouns, namely, the Per- 
sonal, the Relative, the Interrogative and the Adjective 
Pronoun. 

Section I— Of PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

1. The Personal Pronouns are so called because 
they distinguish the three grammatical persons. They 
are /, thou, he, she and it, with their declined forms and 
their compounds. 

2. Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gen- 
der and case. There are three persons. 

Singular. 

I is the first person. 

Thou is the second person. 

He, she or it is the third person. 

Plural. 

We is the first person. 

Ye or you is the second person. 

They is the third person. 

Questions on Pronouns. — How many kinds of pronouns? 1. Name 
the personal pronouns? 

2. Of what do they admit? How many are the persons, ani what 
are they? 



Etymology. 



39 



3. Pronouns have two numbers, the singular and the 
plural : as I, thou, he; we, ye, or you, they. Gender has 
respect only to the third person singular: as he, she, it. 
He is masculine, she is feminine and it is neuter. 

4. Personal pronouns have three cases, the nominative, 
the possessive and the objective. The objective case of 
a pronoun has, in general, a form different from that of 
the nominative or the possessive. Personal pronouns are 
thus declined: 



Person. 
First. 


Case. 
Nom. 
Possess. 
Ooj. 


Singular. 

I. 

My or mine. 

Me. 


Plural. 

We. 

Our or ours. 

Us. 


Second. 


Nom. 

Possess. 

Ooj. 


Thou or you. 
Thy or thine. 
Thee. 


Ye or you. 
Your or yours. 
You. 


Third. 
Mas. 


Nom. 

Possess. 

Ooj. 


He. 
His. 
Him. 


They. 

Their or theirs 

Them. 


Third.. 
Fern. 


Nom. 

Possess. 

Ooj. 


She. 

Her or hers. 

Her. 


They. 

Their or theirs. 

Them. 


Third. 
Neuter. 


Nom. 

Possess. 

Ooj. 


It. 

Its. 

It. 


They. 

Their or theirs. 

Them. 



5. Compound Personal Pronouns. — Personal and 
Possessive Adjective Pronouns, when compounded with 
the word self, are called Compound Personal Pronouns. 
They are either reciprocal, when they refer back to the 
Nominative: as "We hurt ourselves by vain rage;" or 
"They themselves performed it." 



Questions on Personal Pronouns. — 3. 
pronouns? What is said of gender? 

4. How many cases have pronouns? 
tive case? 

Questions on Personal Pronouns. — 5. 
sonal and adjective pronouns? 



How many numbers have 
What is said of the objec- 
What is said of the per- 



40 



English Grammar. 



they are employed to denote emphasis, distinction or con- 
trast: as "I saw the person himself/' "She herself will 
do it;" "This is the book itself/' and in the plural, 
"They themselves performed it." 

This class of pronouns may be thus declined : 



Person. 


Case. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


First. 


Xom. 


Myself. 


Ourselves. 




Possess. 




ifnnfi})rt 






11 U It I I It [1 




01) j. 


Myself. 


Ourselves. 


Second. 


Xom. 
Possess. 
Ob j. 


Thyself. 


Yourselves. 




Thyself. 


Yourselves. 


Third. 

A[ (1 a 


Xom. 
Possess. 
Ob j. 


Himself. 


Themselves. 




Himself. 


Themselves. 


Third. 
Fern 


Xom. 
Possess. 


Herself. 


Themselves. 










01) j. 


Herself. 


Themselves. 


Third. 


Xom. 


Itself. 


Themselves. 


Neuter. 


Possess. 
01) j. 






Itself. 


Themselves. 




Section II — 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



1. Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, 
to some word or phrase going before, which is thence 
called the antecedent; they are who, which, what, that 
and as, with their declined forms and compounds. 

What is a compound relative, including both the ante- 
cedent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent to that 
which: as "This is what I wanted," that is to say, "the 
thing which I wanted." 

2. Who is applied to persons, which to the lower ani- 
mals and to inanimate things : as "He is a friend, who is 
faithful in adversity;'' "The bird, which sung so sweetly, 
is flown;" "This is the tree, which produces no fruit." 

Questions on Relative Pronouns. — 1. What am re'ative pro- 
nouns? What is said of the relative irliat? 



Etymology. 41 

That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too fre- 
quent repetition of who and ivhich. It is applied to both 
persons and things : as "He that acts wisely, deserves 
praise;" "Modesty is a quality that highly adorns a 
woman." Where the antecedent is mixed, the relative 
that must be used, as in the sentence, "There is the man 
and the dog that we saw." 

3. Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 



Singula) 


and Plural. 




'Nominative. 




Who. 


Possessive. 




Whose. 


Objective. 




Whom. 



As is generally a relative when it follows many, such 
or same. He followed such a course as ruined him. 

The Interrogative Pronoun is used to ask a ques- 
tion. Who was at the door? TT7*^ do they want? 
Which is yours ? 

Section III— ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, hav- 
ing the properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four 
classes, namely, the possessive, the distributive, the de- 
monstrative, the indefinite. 

The possessive are those which relate to possession or 
property. 

Questions on Relative Pronouns. — 2. To what are who and which 
applied? What is said of that? 

3. What number is who? Decline it. What are who, which, 
and what called, when used in asking questions? 

Questions on Adjective Pronouns. — : 1. What are adjective pro- 
nouns? How are they divided? What are the possessive? 



42 > English Grammar. 

There are seven of them, viz., my, thy, his, her, our, 
your, their. 

Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were formerly 
used before a substantive or adjective beginning with a 
vowel, or a silent h: as, "Blot out all mine iniquities." 

2. The distributive are those that denote the persons 
or things that make up a number, as taken separately and 
singly. They are each, every, either: as "Each of his 
brothers is in a favorable situation;" "Every man must 
account for himself;" "I have not seen either of them." 

3. The demonstrative are those that precisely point 
out the subjects to which they relate: this and that, 
these and those, are of this class : as "This is true charity, 
that is only its image." 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that, to 
the more distant : as "This man is more intelligent than 
that." This indicates the latter, or last mentioned; 
that, the former, or first mentioned : as "Both wealth and 
poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite pride ; this, 
discontent." 

4. The indefinite are those that express their sub- 
jects in an indefinite or general manner. The following 
are of this kind : some, other, any, one, all, such, none. 

Other is declined in the following manner : 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Nom. 


other. 


others. 


one. 


ones. 


Pos. 


other's. 


others'. 


one's. 


ones'. 


Obj. 


other. 


others. 


one. 


ones. 



Note. — The word own is frequently added to the possessive 
adjective pronouns, both in the singular and plural ; it is 
used to express emphasis or opposition: as, "I live in my 

Questions on Adjective Pronouns. — 2. What are the distributive 
pronouns? 

3. What are the demonstrative? 

4. What are the indefinite? Decline one and other. 



Etymology. 43 

own house;" that is, the house belongs to ine ; it is not a 
rented house ; "It is her own book ;" "It is their own fault," 
&c. These are called compound adjective pronouns. 

Rule for Parsing a PRONOUN 

State the kind; if personal, tell its gender, number and 
case and give the reason why it is in such case, dec. 

EXAMPLES. 

I wrote to him. 

I — is a personal pronoun, common gender, first person, sin- 
gular number and nominative case. 

Wrote — is a verb. 

To — a preposition. It shows the relation between wrote and 
him. 

Him — is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, third person, 
singular number, objective case, governed by the 
preposition "to." 

The man who sent them. 

The — definite article, limiting "man." 

Man — a common noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number and nominative case. 

Who — a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent man. 
masculine gender, third person, singular number and 
nominative case to the verb "sent," according to the 
12th. Rule of Syntax. 

Sent — is a verb. 

Them — a personal pronoun, third person, plural number 
and in the objective case, governed by the transitive 
verb "sent." Its gender is indetermined or indefinite. 

He brought his hat himself. 

He — is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, third person, 
singular number and nominative case, subject of the 
verb "brought." 

Brought — an active verb. 

His — is a possessive adjective pronoun,- referring to "hat." 

Hat — is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, singu- 
lar number, objective case and object of the verb 
"brought." 

Himself — a compound personal pronoun, in the nominative 
case, referring to "he." 

What is the rule for parsing a pronoun? 



44 English Grammar. 

EXERCISES FOE PARSING. 

You know we sent it to you. I told her they saw him. 
They sold it for more than its value. 

The man who sold it. The person to whom it was sold. 
The book which he had. The lady whose name I forget. 
The boy that said it. 

My book. His lesson. Her desk. Our house. You*' duty. 
Their farm. It is our own business. We ourselves will go. 
This man. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE VERB. 

Section I— The Nature of VERBS 

1. A Verb is a word by which we make a statement 
or ask a question: as I went, who bought it? Verbs are 
of three kinds, namely, Active, Passive and Neuter; they 
are also divided into Regular, Irregular and Defective. 

2. An Active Verb expresses action, and always im- 
plies an agent, and generally an object acted upon : as to 
Jove; "I love my parents;" "John recites his lesson.*' 
The active verb is either transitive or intransitive. 

An Active-Transitive verb expresses action that 
passes from the agent over to some other object: as "The 
tutor instructs his pupils/' "I esteem the man;" "Emily 
loves her mother." 

An Active-Intransitive verb expresses an action that 
is confined to the agent, and has no effect upon any ex- 
ternal object: as to walk, to run, to fly; "The man 
walks;" "The boy runs;" "The birds -sing." 

The Transitive Verb requires an object to complete 
its sense: as, John struck the ball. If we say, John 

Questions on the verb. — 1. What is a verb? How many kinds of 
verbs and how are they divided? 

2. What is an active verb? What is said of the active verb? 
What does an active-transitive verb express? 



Etymology. 45 

struck, we wait for further information. For this 
reason the transitive verb is sometimes called an incom- 
plete verb. In the sentence, He runs, the meaning is 
complete. N"o other word is required to make the 
statement. Hence, the intransitive verb is sometimes 
called a complete verb. 

3. A Passive Verb is a transitive verb so used that 
it represents its subject as acted upon; it always implies 
an object and an agent : as to be loved ; "Emily is loved 
by her mother;'' "the man was discharged." 

A Neuter Verb is one that does not represent its 
subject as acting. It merely expresses a state of being: 
as I am, I sleep, I sit. 

4. Auxiliary Verbs are those by the aid of which the 
other English verbs are principally conjugated ; they are 
do, be, have, shall, will, may and can, with their varia- 
tions; and let K when used as an auxiliary, and must, 
which have no variation. 

5. A Defective Verb is one that lacks some of its 
principal parts, or has no participle : as beware, ought, 
quoth. 

6. A Participle is a form of the verb that assumes 
the act or state, and is generally construed like an ad- 
jective. The grass is growing. 

Rule for Parsing a VERB 

First state what kind it is, whether active, passive or 
neuter; transitive or intransitive ; regular, irregular or 
defective. Then give its number, person, mood and 
tense; point out the nominative it agrees with, if any, and 
mention the RULE of Syntax for such agreement. 

Questions on the Verb.S. What is a passive verb? A neuter 
verb? 

4. Which are the auxiliary verbs, and what are they? What is 
the rule for parsing a verb? 



46 English Grammar. 

Rule for Parsing the PARTICIPLE 

State its kind, whether present, perfect or compound 
perfect, name the verb from which it comes and the word 
to which it refers. 

'\ 

EXAMPLES. 

Virtue rewards her followers. 

Virtue — is a common noun, feminine gender, third person, 
singular number and nominative to "rewards." 

Retcards — is an active transitive verb. 

Her — is an adjective pronoun, relating to "followers." 

Folloicers — a common noun, of the common gender, third 
person, plural number and in the objective case, gov- 
erned by the active transitive verb "rewards." 

John runs. Sarah is loved. I am writing. 

John — a proper noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number and nominative case to the verb runs. 

Runs — an active intransitive verb. 

Sarah — a proper noun, feminine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number and nominative case. 

Is loved — a regular passive verb. 

I — a personal pronoun, first person, singular number and 
nominative case. 

Am — an irregular neuter verb. 

Writing — the present participle, from the verb "to write." 

EXEKCISES FOE PASSING. 

Active Transitive Verbs. — Francis loves his parents. 
He wrote a letter. Charles abuses me. 

Active Intransitive Verbs. — The ship sails. The fish 
swims. The birds fly. The man walks. 

Passive Verbs. — Francis is loved. The letter was written. 
I am assisted. 

Neuter Verbs. — He is. They stand. The child sleeps. 
She sits. They seem. 

What is the rule for parsing the participle? 



Etymology. 47 

Section II— NUMBER and PERSON 

1. Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural : as "I run, we run." In each number there are 
three persons : as, 





Singular. 


Plural- 


First Person. 


I love. 


We love. 


Second Person. 


Thou lovest. 


You love. 


Third Person. 


He loves. 


They love. 



Note. — The verb, in the three persons plural, has, in gener- 
al, the same termination as the first person singular ; only 
the second, and third persons singular vary in termination. 



Section III— MOODS and PARTICIPLES 

1. Mood, or Mode, is a particular form of the verb 
showing the manner in which action or state is repre- 
sented. In other words, mode expresses the manner of 
making the statement. 

There are five moods, viz. : the Indicative, the Impera- 
tive, the Potential, the Subjunctive and the Infinitive. 

2. The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares 
a fact : as "He loves ; he is loved ;" or it asks a question : 
as "Does he love ? Is he loved ?" 

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhort- 
ing, entreating or permitting : as "Depart thou ; mind 
ye ; let us stay ; go in peace." 

The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, 
will or obligation : as "It may rain ; he may go or stay ; I 
can ride ; he would walk ; they should learn." 

Questions on Number. — 1. What have the verbs? How many 
persons? 

Questions on Mood. — 1. What is mood? What is the number of 
the moods? 

2. What is the indicative mood? The imperative? The poten- 
tial? 



48 English Grammar. 

3. The Subjunctive Mood states something as a fu- 
ture contingency, a motive, a wish, a supposition, &c. ; 
and is preceded by a conjunction, expressed or under- 
stood, and attended by another verb : as "I will respect 
him, though he chide me;" "Were he good, he would be 
happy;" that is, "if he were good." 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and 
unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or 
person: as "to act, to speak, to fear." The pupil will 
notice that these infinitives have much of the signifi- 
cance of their corresponding nouns, viz. : action, speech, 
fear. 

The Participle is a certain form of the verb, and de- 
rives its name from its having not only the properties of 
a verb, but also those of an adjective : as "I am desirous 
of knowing him;" "Admired and applauded, he became 
vain ;" "Having finished his work, he submitted it," &c. 

There are three Participles, the Present or Active, the 
Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as "lov- 
ing, loved, having loved." 

Note. — Tn its literal sense, the imperative mood implies a 
command ; it may, however, he employed on occasions of a 
very different nature, often to express the humblest supplica- 
tion of an inferior being to one who is infinitely his supe- 
rior: as, "Give us this day our daily bread; and forgive us 
our trespasses." 

Participles convey an idea of time, and also signify ac- 
tion ; but if, from the participles, we take away the idea of 
time, they simply express quality, and are called participial 
adjectives; as, "writing to a friend; moving in haste; 
heated with wine;" here the words, writing, moving, and 
heated, are participles, conveying a reference to the time at 
which actions were performed ; but in the following sen- 
tences they are adjectives; "writing paper; a moving spec- 
tacle; a heated imagination." Every present participle in 
English ends in ing: as, reading, doing, flying, &c. All 
words ending in ing, however, are not participles : as, morn- 
ing and evening. These words are not derived from verbs, 
and participles must be. 

3. What is the subjunctive? 

What is a participle? How many are there? 



Etymology. 49 

Section IV— TENSE 

1. Tense, being the forms and meanings of the verb 
in regard to time, might seem to admit of only the pres- 
ent, past and future, but to mark it more accurately, it 
is made to consist of six variations, viz. : the Present, the 
Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and 
Second Future Tenses. 

2. The Present Tense represents an action or event as 
passing at the time in which it is mentioned : as "I rule ; 
I am ruled ; I think ; I fear." 

The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event, 
either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at 
a certain time past : as "I loved her for her modesty and 
virtue ;" "They were traveling post when he met them/ 7 

3. The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, 
but also conveys an allusion to the present time : as "I 
have seen the person that was recommended to me." 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing not only as 
past, but also as prior to some other point of time speci- 
fied in the sentence : as "I had finished my letter before 
he arrived." 

4. The first Future Tense represents the action as yet 
to come, either with or without respect to the precise 
time : as "The sun will rise tomorrow ;" "I shall see them 
again." 

The second Future intimates that the action will be 
fully accomplished at or before the time of another 
future action or event : as "I shall have dined at one 
o'clock;" "The two houses will have finished their busi- 
ness, when the king comes to prorogue them." 

Note. — The present tense is sometimes used in reference to 
persons long since dead, whose writings we still possess : as, 

1. What is said of tense, and what are the tenses? 

2. What is the present tense? the imperfect? 

3. What is the perfect? The pluperfect? 

4. What is the future tense? The second future? 



50 English Grammar. 

"Seneca reasons and moralizes well;" "Job speaks feelingly 
in his afflictions." The present tense preceded by the words, 
when, before, as soon as, &c, is sometimes used to point out 
the relative time of a future action : as, ''When he arrives 
he will hear the news." "He will hear the news before he 
arrives, or as soon as he arrives. In animated historical 
narrations, this tense is sometimes used for the imperfect: 
as, "He enters the territory of his enemies, he fights and 
conquers, takes an immense booty and returns to enjoy a 
triumph." 

The imperfect and perfect tenses both denote past ac- 
tions; but they differ from each other, with regard to the 
time in which the actions were performed. The imperfect 
denotes the action performer 1 within a period of time which 
has entirely passed away, without any regard to the length 
of the period : as, "The ancient philosophers wrote learnedly 
on many subjects. The philosophers of the last century 
made great discoveries; I wrote last year; I saw the man 
last week; he icent yesterday." 

The perfect tense denotes the action performed within a 
period of time, of which there is still a portion to pass 
away: as, "Modern philosophers have written more exten- 
sively; the philosophers of the present age have made still 
greater discoveries; I have written this year; I have seen 
the man this week ; he has returned today." 

Section V.— THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.. 

1. The Conjugation of the verb is the regular ar- 
rangement of its several numbers, persons, moods and 
tenses. The conjugation of the active verb is called the 
Active Voice; and that of the passive verb, the Passive 
Voice. 

Note. — The present and the imperfect tenses, in the active 
voice, are called simple tenses, because they are seldom com- 
pounded with any of the auxiliary verbs, unless for the sake 
of emphasis; as, "I do love; he did write" &c. 

The Signs of the Bloods and Tenses. 

The auxiliary verbs may be used as signs, to point out the 
moods and tenses of the principal verbs. The sign of the 
present tense indicative, when used emphatically, is do, and 
the imperfect did: as, "I do love; I did write." The sign of 

1. What is the coniugation of a verb? What is the conjugation 
of the active and the passive voice styled? In the Note, what 
tenses are called simple? What are the signs of moods and tenses? 



Etymology. 51 

the perfect is have: as, ''I have written." The sign of the 
pluperfect is had: as, "I had written." The sign of the first 
future is shall or will, and the second future shall or will 
have: as, "I shall or will write, I shall or will have written." 
The signs of the potential mood, present tense, are may or 
can, shall or must: as, "I may or can write." The sign 
of the imperfect is might, could, would, or should: as, "I 
might, could, would, or should write." The sign of the per- 
fect is mag or can have: as, "I mag or can have written." 
The sign of the pluperfect is might, could, would or should 
have: as, "I might, could, would or should have written." 

The sign of the infinitive mood is to: as, to read, to write; 
and the sign of the subjunctive mood is, if, though, unless or 
some other conjunction implying doubt or contingency. By 
learning the above signs, the pupils may be easily taught to 
conjugate any verb in the English language. 

The auxiliary and active verb To have is conjugated in 
the following manner : 

TO HAVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Thou hast. 2. You have. 

3. He, she or it has. 3. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had. 1. We had. 

2. Thou hadst. 2. You had. 

3. He, &c, had. 3. They had. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural.. 

1. I have had. 1. We have had. 

2. Thou hast had. 2. You have had. 

3. He has had. 3. They have ha 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I hnd had. 1. We had had. 

2. Thou hadst had. 2. You had had. 

3. He had had. 3. They had had. 



52 English Grammar. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. You shall or will have. 

3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had. 2. You will have had. 

3. lie will have had. 3. They will have had. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 

2. Have thou or do thou have. 2. Have you or do you have. 

3. Let him have. 3. Let them have. 

Or, Witliout the Auxiliaries. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Have thou. 2. Have you. 

Note. — The imperative mood is not properly entitled to 
three persons. The command, entreaty or permission ex- 
pressed by the imperative mood, is always made to the second 
person, but never to the first or third. The word Let is one 
of those verbs which have the infinitive mood after them 
without the sign to; and seems to be equivalent to the word 
permit or allow: as, "Let me have," that is "Let me to 
have," or, "Permit or allow me to have;" let being. in the 
second person, imperative mood, and have in the infinitive 
mood, the sign to being understood. After the active verbs 
bid, dare. let. need, feel, etc.. the sign of the infinitive is 
generally omitted. 



POTENTIAL MOOD 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have. 1. We may or can have. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have. 2. You may or can have. 

3. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 



Etymology. 



53 



Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would or 1. Wo might, could, would or 

should have. should have. 

2. Thou inightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would or 

wouldst or shouldst have. should have. 

3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would or 

should have. should have. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. You may or can have had. 

had. 

3. He may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would or 

should have had. should have had. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would or 

wouldst or shouldst have should have had. 

had. 

3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would 

should have had. or should have had. 





SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 




Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3] 


Singular. Plural. 
If I have. 1. If we have. 
If thou have. 2. If you have. 
If he have. 3. If they have. 


1. 
2. 
3.' 


Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 
If I had. 1. If we had. 
If thou hadst. 2. If you had. 
If he. &c, had. 3. If they had. 



Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I have had. 

2. If thou hast had. 

3. If he has had. 



Plural. 

1. If we have had. 

2. If you have had. 

3. If they have had. 



54 English Grammar. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had had. 1. If we had had. 

2. If thou hadst had. 2. If you had had. 

3. If he had had. 3. If they had had. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have. 1. If we shall or will have. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If you shall or will have. 

3. If he shall or will have. 3. If they shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have had. 1. If we shall have had. 

2. If thou shalt have had. 2. If you shall have had. 

3. If he shall have had. 3. If they shall have had. 

Note. — The indicative mood is converted into the subjunc- 
tive, whenever a condition, motion, wish or supposition is 
implied ; so the potential mood may, in the same manner, be 
turned into the subjunctive: as, "If I could deceive him, I 
would not," "though he should increase his wealth," etc. It 
is not necessary that the conjunction which accompanies the 
subjunctive mood, should be always expressed ; it is fre- 
quently understood : as, "Were I to go, he would not fol- 
low ;" "Had he known me, he would have treated me differ- 
ently;" that is, "If I were to go; If he had known," &c. 

It should be observed that the present subjunctive often 
points out the relative time of a future action ; "If they 
arrive to-morrow, I will see them ;" "If I send the note this 
evening, he will receive it." The auxiliaries should and 
ivould are used to express the present and future, as well as 
the past ; so that the precise time of the verb, in the sub- 
junctive mood, must often be determined by the nature and 
drift of the sentence; as, "It is my desire that he should or 
would come now or to-morrow ;" "It was my desire that he 
would or should come last week." See Observation under 
Rule xvi. of Syntax. 

INFINITIVE MOOD 

Present. To have. Perfect. To have had. 

participl.es 

Present or Active. Having. 
Perfect or Passive. Had. 
Compound Perfect. Having had. 



Etymology. 



55 



The auxiliary and neuter verb To be is conjugated as 
follows : 

TO BE. 



Singular. 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He, she or it is. 



INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 



Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Singular. 

1. I have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 

3. He has been. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been. 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 



First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural 

1. I shall or will be. 1 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2 

3. He shall or will be. 3 



We shall or will be. 
You shall or will be. 
They shall or will be. 



Second Future Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I shall have been. 1. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. 

3. He will have been. 3. 



Plural. 
We shall have been. 
You will have been. 
They will have been. 



56' English Grammar. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be. . 1. Let us be. 

2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be you or do you be. 

3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. 

POTENTIAL MOOD 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. You may or can be. 

3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would or 

should be. should be. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would 

wouldst or shouldst be. or should be. 

3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would 

should be. or should be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have been. 1. We may or can have been. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. You may or can have been. 

been. 

3. He may or can have been. 3. They may or can have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. _ Plural. 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would 

should have been. or should have been. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would 

wouldst or shouldst have or should have been, 

been. 

3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would 

should have been. or should have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 



Etymology. 57 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been. 1. If we have been. 

2. If thou hast been. 2. If you have been. 

3. If he hath or has been. 3. If they have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been. 

3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be. 1. If we shall or will be. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be. 2. If you shall or will be. 

3. If he shall or will be. 3. If they shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been. 1. If we shall have been. 

2. If thou shalt have been. 2. If you shall have been. 

3. If he shall have been. 3. If they shall have been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD 

Present Tense. To be. Per feet. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES 

Compound Perfect. Having been. 

Section VI — CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS 

ACTIVE. 

1. Active Verbs are called Eegular when they form 
their imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their 
perfect participle, by adding to the verb ed, or d only 
when the verb ends in e: as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

I favor. I favored. - Favored. 

I love. I loved. Loved. 

When is a verb called regular? 



58 English Grammar. 

A Kegular Active Verb is conjugated in the lollowmg 
manner : 

TO LOVE. 



INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He, she or it loves. 3. They love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved 

■ 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have- loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. You shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

Note. — The following forms are used in present and imper- 
fect tenses, when ener^v or positiveness is expressed; and 
when a question is asked. 

Conjugate the verb love. 



Etymology. 



59 



Singular. 

1. I do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 

3. He does love. 



Singular. 

1. I did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 

3. He did love. 



Singular. 

1. Do I love? 

2. Dost thou love? 

3. Does he love? 



Singular. 

1. Did I love? 

2. Didst thou love? 

3. Did he love? 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We do love. 
, 2. You do love. 

3. They do love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We did love. 

2. You did love. 

3. They did love. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 
3. Do we love? 
2. Do you love? 
S. Do they love? 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. Did we love? 

2. Did you love? 

3. Did they love? 



IMPERATIVE 

Singular. 

1. Let me love. 

2. Love thou or do thou love 



MOOD 

Plural. 

1. Let us love. 

2. Love you or do you love. 



3. Let him love. 



Let them love. 



Or, Without the Auxiliarie 
Singular. Plural. 

Love thou. 2. Love you. 



POTENTIAL MOOD 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 

2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. You may or can love. 

3. He may or can love. 3. They may or can love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would or 

should love. 

2. Thou mightst couldst, 

wouldst or shouldst love. 

3. He might, could, would 

or should love. 



1. We might, could, would 

or should love. 

2. You might, could, would 

or should love. 

3. They might, could, would 

or should love. 



60 



English Grammar. 



Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have loved. 1. We may or can have loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. You may or can have loved. 

loved. • 3. They may or can have loved. 

3. He may or can have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Plural. 



Singular. 
I might, could, would or 

should have loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst or shouldst have 

loved. 
He might, could, would 

or should have loved. 



We might, could, would 
or should have loved. 

You might, could, would 
or should have loved. 

They might, could, would 
or should have loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I love. 

2. If thou love. 

3. If he love. 



Singular. 

1. If I loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. 

3. If he loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved. 



Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved. 1. If we have loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved. 2. If you have loved. 



3. If he has loved. 



3. If they have loved. 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved. 1. If we had loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved. 2. If you had loved. 

3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 



First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will love. 
•2. If thou shalt or wilt love. 2. If you shall or will love. 
8. If he shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love. 



Etymology. 61 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have loved. 1. If we shall have loved. 

2. If thou shalt have loved. 2. If you shall have loved. 

3. If he shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD 

Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES 

Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having loved. 

Note. — The active verb may be conjugated differently, by 
adding its present or active participle to the auxiliary verb 
to be. through all its moods and tenses : as, instead of "I 
teach, thou teachest, he teaches," &c. ; we may say, "I am 
teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching, he was teaching, 
I have been teaching," &c. The terminations st and eth, are 
only used on grave subjects. 

PASSIVE. 

1. Passive Verbs are called regular, when they form 
their perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the 
verb : as, from the verb "to love," is formed the passive, 
"I am loved, I was loved, I shall be loved," &c. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect par- 
ticiples to the auxiliary to be, through all its changes of 
number, person, mood and tense, in the following man- 
ner. 

TO BE LOVED. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 



62 English Grammar. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. You shall or will be loved. 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved 2. You will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be loved. 1. Let us be loved. 

2. Be thou loved or do 2. Be you loved or do you be 

thou be loved. loved. 

3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be loved. 1. We may or can be loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be 2. You may or can be loved. 

loved. 

3. He may or can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved. 

Questions. — 1. When are passive verbs called regular? How is 
the passive verb conjugated? Conjugate the verb to be loved. 



Etymology. 



63 



3. 



Singular. 
I might, could, would or 

should be loved. 
Thou uiightst, couldst, 

wouldst or shouldst be 

loved. 
He might, could, would 

or should be loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 



We might, could, would or 

should be loved. 
You might, could, would or 

should be loved. 

They might, could, would 
or should be loved. 



Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have been 1. We may or can have been 

loved. loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. You may or can have been 

been loved. loved. 

3. He may or can have been 3. They may or can have been 

loved. loved. 



Pluperfect 
Singular. 
I might, could, would or 1. 

should have been loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 2. 
wouldst or shouldst have 
been loved. 
He might, "could, would or 3. 
should have been loved. 



Tense. 

Plural. 
We might, could, would or 

should have been loved. 
You might, could, would or 

should have been loved 

They might, could, would 
or should have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 



Singular. 

1. If I be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If they be loved. 



Imverfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved. 1. If we have been loved. 

2. If thou hast been loved. 2. If you have been loved. 

3. If he hath or has been loved. 3. If they have been loved. 



64 English Grammar. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved. ' 1. If we bad been loved. 

2. If thou hadst been loved. 2. If you had been loved. 

3. If he had been loved. 3. If they had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be loved. 1. If we shall or will be loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be 2. If you shall or will be 

loved. loved. 

3. If he shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall or will be loved 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been loved. 1. If we shall have been love i. 

2. If thou shalt have been 2. If you shall have been 

loved. loved. 

3. If he shall have been loved. 3. If they shall have been loved 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Perfect. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES 

Present. Being loved. Perfect or Passive. Loved. 
Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 

It will be noticed throughout the conjugation of the 
preceding verbs that the pronoun ye, second person plu- 
ral, has been omitted; also that the modern verb in the 
third person singular has taken the place of the ancient 
form : as "he has been loved," instead of "he hath been 
loved." He, she or it loves, instead of loveth. In the 
Bible and in poetry these forms are used; also among 
members of the society of Friends or Quakers. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

1. Irregular Verbs are those which do not form 
their imperfect tense, and perfect participle, by the 
addition of d or ed to the verb: as, 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Part. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 



Etymology. 

Irregular Verbs Are of Various Sorts. 



65 



1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and 
the perfect participle the same : as, 



Present. 


Imperf. 


Perf. Part. Present. 


Imperf. 


Perf. Part 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Cast, 


east, 


cast. 


Shed. 


shed, 


shed. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Knit, 


knit, 


knit, k. 


Slit, 


slit, 


slit, R. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 



2. Such as have the imperfect and perfect participle 
the same : as, 



Present. 


Imperf. 


Perf. Part. Present. 


Imperf. 


Perf. Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Bend, 


bent. 


bent. 


Keep, 


kept. 


kept. 


Bereave, 


bereft, 


bereft, r 


Lay, 


laid. 


laid. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Bind, 


bound. 


bound. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Bleed, 


bled. 


bled. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Lose, 


lost. 


lost. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode. 


Creep. 


crept, 


crept, 


Say, 


said. 


said. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt, r. 


Seek. 


sought, 


sought. 


Dig, 


dug, 


dug, R. 


Sell, 


sold, 


- sold. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, 


dwelt, r 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Shine. 


shone. 


shone. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Shoe. 


shod, 


shod. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shot. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Flee, 


fled. 


fled. 




sat, 


sat. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Get 


got, 


got. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Gild, 


gilt, 


gilt, r 


Speed. 


sped. 


sped. 


Gird. 


girt, 


girt, R 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Spill, 


spilt, 


spilt. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Hang, 


hung, 


hung, r 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 



Question. — What are irregular verbs? 



66 



English Grammar. 



Present. 


Imperf. 


Perj. Part. Present. 


Imperf. 


Perf. Part. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck or 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 






stricken. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Sweat, 


swet, 


swet, k. 


Work, 


wrought 


wrought. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 




or worked, or worked. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 



1. Such as have the imperfect tense and perfect par- 
ticiple different : as, 



Present. 


Imperf. 


Perf. Part.Present. 


Imperf. 


Perf. Part, 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 






forgot. 


Awake, 


awoke, 


awaked. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Bear, 


bore, 


borne. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


to carry, 






Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Bear, 


bare or 


born. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 




bore, to 




Grave, 


graved, 


graven, r. 




bring forth. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, r. 






beat. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun 






hid, 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 






bid. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, r. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, r. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Ring, 


rang, 


rung. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, 




rung, 








chid. 


•Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Choose, 


chose. 


chosen. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Cleave, 


clove or 


cleft. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, R. 


to split. 


, cleft, 


or cloven. 


, See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clad, r. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn. 


Crow, 


crew, 


crowed, r. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Dare, 


durst, 


dared. 


Sing, 


sung, 


sung. 


to venture, 






sang, 




Do, 


did, 


done. 


Sink, 


sunk, 


sunk. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 




sank, 




Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden. 


Eat, 


eat or ate 


, eaten. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Fly, 


tiew, 


flown. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown. 







Etymology. 




67 


Present. 


Imperf. 


Per f. Par 


t. Present. 


Imperf. 


Perf. Part 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Swim, 


swum. 


swum. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, 




swam, 








spitten. 


Take, 


rook, 


taken. 


Spring, 


sprung, 


sprung. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 




sprang 




Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Steal, 


stole. 


stolen. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, r 


Write, 


wrote. 


written. 



Note. — The verbs marked with the r, may be conjugated 
regularly or irregularly. The whole number of verbs in the 
English language is about 4.300, including irregular and de- 
fective verbs, which amount to about 177. Because of the 
inevitable changes of language, these numbers must be 
slowly changing. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Defective Verbs are those that are used only in some 
of their moods and tenses : as, am, teas, been; can, could; 
may, might; shall, should; will, could, &c. 



Present. 

Can, 

May, 

Shall, 

Will, 

Must, Perfect. 

Ought, 



Imperfect. 
could, 
might, 
should, 
would, 
must, 
ought, 
quoth, 



Perfect Part. 
( wanting.) 



EXAMPLES IN PARSING, SHOWING NUMBER, PERSON, MOOD AND 
TENSE OF THE VERB. 

The boy killed the bird. John is cruel. 

The — definite article, limiting "boy." 

Boy — a common noun, masculine gender, third person, singu- 
lar number and nominative case to the verb "killed." 

Killed — is a regular, active, transitive verb, indicative mood, 
imperfect tense, third person, singular number, to 
agree with its nominative case "boy," according to 1st 
Rule of Syntax. 

The — definite article, limiting the noun "bird." 



Question. — What are defective verbs? 



68 English Grammar. 

Bird — a common noun, of the common gender, third person, 
singular number and in the objective case, governed 
by the active, transitive verb "killed." 

John — a proper noun, masculine gender, third person, singu- 
lar number, nominative case, &c. 

Is — an irregular, neuter verb of the indicative mood, present 
tense, third person, singular number, to agree with its 
nominative "John," according to the 1st Rule of Syn- 
tax. 

Cruel — is an adjective of the positive degree, qualifying 
"John." 

I saw the old man running. 

/ — a personal pronoun, first person, singular number and 
nominative case to the verb "saw." 

Saw — an irregular, active, transitive verb, indicative mood, 
imperfect tense, first person, singular number, to agree 
with its nominative "I," according to Rule 1st, &c. 

The — definite article, limiting "man." 

Old — an adjective of the positive degree, qualifying "man." 

Man — a common noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, and in the objective case, governed 
by the active, transitive verb "saw," according to 
Rule 4th, &c. 

Running — the present participle,, from the verb "to run," and 
referring to "man." 

exercises fob parsixg. 

I write. John loves to read. He committed a fault. We 
completed our journey. They have deceived me. He had 
resigned the office. I will submit. They will have dined 
before he arrives. He will have determined. Prepare your 
lesson. I can forgive. They may offend. You may go. He 
might overtake us. He would go. They might have sold it. 
He could have gone. I may be there. 



Etymology. 69 

CHAPTER VII. 
ADVERBS. 

1. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, 
an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express 
some quality or circumstance respecting it : as, "He reads 
well;" "A truly good man;" "He writes very correctly." 

Some adverbs are compared by er and est: as, "Soon, 
sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest;" those ending 
in ly are compared by more and most: as, wisely, more 
wisely, most wisely. 

~Note. — A short expression of two or more words frequently 
performs the office of an adverb, and is called an adverbial 
phrase: such as, "In fine, in general, at most, at least, by no 
means, not at all," &c. 

Adverbs may be reduced to the following classes : 

1. Of number: as, "Once, twice, thrice," &c. 

2. Of order: as, "Firstly, secondly, thirdly, lastly, finally," 
&c. 

3. Of place: as, "Here, there, where, nowhere, anywhere, 
forward, backward, hence, thence," &c. 

4. Of time. Of time present: as, "Now, to-day," &c. Of 
time past: as, "Already, before, lately, hitherto, long since, 
long ago." Of time to come: as, "To-morrow, not yet, here- 
after, instantly, presently, by and by," &c. Of time indefi- 
nite: as, "Often, soon, seldom, daily, yearly, always, when, 
then, ever, never, again," &c. 

5. Of quantity: as, "Much, sufficiently, abundantly,' &c. 

6. Of manner or quality: as, "Wisely, justly, quickly, 
slowly, badly, ably," &c. 

7. Of doubt: as, "Perhaps, perchance, possibly," &c. 

8. Of affirmation: as, "Verily, truly, yea, yes, indeed, 
surely," &c. 

9. Of negation: as, "Nay, no, not, not at all," &c. 

10. Of interrogation: as, "How, why, wherefore," &c. 

11. Of comparison: as, "More, most, better, best, almost, 
alike," &c. 

Questions on Adverts. — 1. What is an adverb? How are some 
adverbs compared? 



70 English Grammar. 

Rule for Parsing the ADVERB 

Tell its kind, and point out the word it serves to 
qualify. 

EXAMPLES. 

The J)ird sings sweetly. 

The — definite article, limiting ''bird." 

Bird — is a common noun, common gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, and nominative case to the verb 
"sings." 

Sings — an irregular, active, intransitive verb, indicative 
mood, present tense, third person, singular number, to 
agree with its nominative case "bird," according to 
the 1st Rule of Syntax. 

Sweetly — is an adverb of manner, or quality, and modifies 
the verb "sings." 

EXERCISES i'OR PARSING. 

I have seen him once, and, perhaps, twice. 

Thirdly and lastly, I will conclude. 

We often resolve, but seldom perform. 

We are wisely and happily directed. 

He reads correctly. He will soon go forward. 

Yes, truly, he will be there soon, or never. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

1. A Preposition shows the relation between its ob- 
ject and some other word. Prepositions are, for the most 
part, placed before nouns and pronouns : as "He went 
from London to York;" "She is above disguise;" "They 
are supported by industry." 

2. The following is a list of the principal prepositions : 



Of 


into 


above 


at 


off 


To 


within 


below 


near 


on or upon 


For 


without 


between 


up 


among 


By 


over 


beneath 


down 


after 


With 


under 


from 


before 


about 


In 


through 


beyond 


behind 


against. 



What is the rule for parsing the adverb? 

Question on Prepositions. — 1. What is a preposition? 



Etymology. 71 

Rule for Parsing the PREPOSITION 

Point out the word it governs. 

EXAMPLES. 

Turn to me. 
Turn— is a regular, active, intransitive verb, imperative 

mood, second person, singular or plural, agreeing with 

thou, or ye or you understood. 
To — is a preposition and shows the relation between the 

verb turn and* the pronoun me. 
Me — a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, and 

in the objective case, governed by the preposition "to," 

acording to Rule 5th. 

EXEKCISES FOR PARSING. 

I went from Boston to Providence. 

He fought for glory. She ran into the room. 

Without charity he supported himself with credit. 



CHAPTER IX. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. A Conjunction is a part of speech used to connect 
words, clauses or sentences. 

Conjunctions are divided into three chief classes, viz. : 
coordinate, subordinate and corresponding. 

The Coordinate Conjunction connects parts of equal 
rank, or parts that do not modify each other. 

Subordinate Conjunctions connect parts that are of 
unequal rank, or parts of which one modifies the other. 

A Corresponding Conjunction suggests another 
conjunction and assists it in connecting the same parts. 

And, but, or, are the most familiar of the coordinate 
conjunctions. 

Questions on Prepositions. — What is the rule for parsing the 
preposition? 

Questions on Conjunctions. — 1. What is a conjunction? How 
are they divided? 



72 English Grammar. 

EXAMPLES. 

The wind is blowing and the flames are spreading. 

He should go, out it is impossible. 

Was it thunder, or was it the firing of cannon? 

If, that, because and since are the well known sub- 
ordinate conjunctions. 

I shall work for him, if he pay me. 

Either — or ; neither — nor ; though — yet ; both — and ; 
as — as; whether — or; if — then, are well known corre- 
sponding conjunctions. 

EXAMPLES. 
Rule for Parsing the CONJUNCTION 

State whether it is coordinate, subordinate or corre- 
sponding, and point out the words or sentences it con- 
nects. 

EXAMPLES. 

John and Charles. He tried, but lie failed. 

John — is a proper noun, &c. 

And — is a coordinate conjunction, uniting John and Charles. 
The pupil should observe that John and Charles are 
the same parts of speech. 

Charles — a proper noun, &c. 

He — is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, third person, 
singular number, and nominative case. 

Tried — a regular, active, intransitive verb, indicative mood, 
imperfect tense, third person, singular number, to 
agree with its nominative "he." 

But — is a coordinate conjunction and connects the sentences 
"he tried" and "he failed." Because it expreses oppo- 
sition of meaning, it is often called a disjunctive con- 
junction. 

EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 

John and David are good boys. 
Though often advised, yet he did not reform. 
Neither prosperity nor adversity improved him. 
Henry is esteemed, because he is obedient. 
I will submit, for it is vain to contend. 

What is the rule for parsing the conjunction? 



Etymology. 73 



CHAPTEE X. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Interjections are Avords thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence to express the passion or emotion of 
the speaker : as, "Oh ! I have alienated my friend ; Alas ! 
I fear for life/' 

2. Interjections are of various kinds : First, of Sur- 
prise: as, Really ! sure! strange! Second, of Grief or 
Earnestness: as, Ah! alas! ! Third, of Contempt: as, 
Pho ! fie ! fudge ! Fourth, of Calling : as, Lo ! behold ! 
hark! halloa! ho! Fifth, of Saluting: as, Welcome! 
hail ! all hail ! 

Note. — Some grammarians prefer to call these words ex- 
clamations. 

Rule for Parsing the INTERJECTION. 

Tell its kind. 

EXAMPLE. 

Alas! I fear. 

Alas — is an interjection of grief or earnestness. 

/ — a personal pronoun, first person, &e. 

Fear — is a regular, active, intransitive verb, indicative 
mood, present tense, first person, singular, &c. 

EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 

O Peace ! how desirable thou art. 
Strange! that he has not come. 
Hail ! my friend. Behold ! I am here. 
Hark ! the drum beats ; and now adieu ! 

Questions on Interjections. — 1. What is an Interjection? 

2. What are the various kinds? 

3. What is the rule for parsing the Interjection? 



74 English Grammar. 

Part III. 
SYNTAX 

1. The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treats 
of the agreement and construction of words in sentences. 

A Sentence is an assemblage of words, making 
complete sense. Sentences are of three kinds, simple, 
complex and compound. 

A Simple Sentence has in it but one subject and one 
finite verb : as, "Life is short/' 

A Complex Sentence contains an independent and 
one or more dependent clauses. An independent clause 
is one that, standing alone, makes complete sense. A 
dependent clause does not make complete sense when 
standing alone. The relative pronouns and the sub- 
ordinate conjunctions play a very important part in the 
formation of complex sentences. 

They who are set to rule over others, must be just. In 
this complex sentence it is clear that the principal or in- 
dependent clause is, they must be just. Taken alone, it 
makes sense. The subordinate, or dependent, clause is, 
who are set to rule over others. 

A Compound Sentence consists of two or more 
simple sentences bound together : as, "Life is short 
and art is long." 

A Phrase is two or more words, forming generally 
a part of a sentence : as, "He endeavored, in a particular 
manner, to show his friendship." "It is, by no means, 
just." 

2. Principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject, 
the predicate and the object. 

Questions on Syntax. — 1. What is the third part of grammar, 
and of what does it treat? What is a sentence? How many 
kinds of sentences? What is a phrase? 



Syntax. 75 

The subject is that which is spoken of; the predicate 
is what is said of the subject. It must contain a verb. 
The object is the person or thing affected by the predi- 
cate verb. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes 
before the verb or attribute; and the word or phrase 
denoting the object follows the verb : as, "A wise man 
governs his passions." Here, a wise man is the subject ; 
governs his passions, the predicate, or thing affirmed, and 
passions, the object. It will be observed that the object 
is included in the predicate. 

~Note. — Besides the division of sentences into simple, com- 
plex and compound, they are also divided into Declarative, 
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory. By the first, 
something is declared or explained: as, "I write; he is 
loved;" by the second, a question is asked: as, "Was it 
John?" by the third, a command is given: as, "Go, thou 
traitor." The following is an Exclamatory sentence: "Ah! 
few shall part where many meet !" 

3. Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord 
and Government. 

Concord is the agreement of one word with another 
in gender, number, case or person. Government is that 
power which one part of speech has over another in 
directing its mood, tense or case. 

METHOD OF ANALYZING SENTENCES. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

Hard things become easy by use. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. Its logical subject 
is "hard things;" its grammatical subject is the noun things, 
which is modified by the adjective hard. The predicate of 
the sentence is, become easy by use. This consists of the 
predicate verb become, which is modified by the phrase by 
use. This phrase is made up of the preposition by and its 
object use. Easy is the predicate adjective. 

Questions on Syntax. — 2. What is the subject? Predicate? The 
object? What is said of the nominative, &c? 

3. Of what does Syntax consist? What is concord? What is 
government ? 



76 English Grammar. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

Many are the trials of the virtuous, hut their reward will 
be great. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 

members. The first member (or clause) is, the trials of the 

virtuous are many ; the second member is, their reward will 

be great. The connective is the coordinate conjunction but. 

The trials of the virtuous — logical subject of first member. 

Trials — grammatical subject, modified by article the and the 
phrase of the virtuous. This consists of the preposi- 
tion of and its object virtuous, which is modified by 
the article the. 

Are many — the predicate. 

Are — predicate-verb. 

Many — predicate-adjective. 

But — has already been disposed of. 

Their reward — logical subject of second member. 

Reward— grammatical subject, modified by the possessive 
pronoun their. 

Will be great — predicate. 

Will be — predicate-verb. 

Great — predicate-adjective. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

The village lay by a stream, ichich ire crossed. 

This is a complex declarative sentence of which the princi- 
pal clause is, the village lay by a stream; the dependent 
clause is, which we crossed. The relative ichich is the con- 
nective. 

The village — logical subject. 

Village — grammatical subject, modified by the article the. 

Lay by a stream — predicate. 

Lai) — predicate-verb. It is modified by the adverbial phrase 
by a stream. This consists of the preposition by and 
its object stream, which is modified by the article a. 
The subject of the dependent clause is we; the predi- 
cate is crossed. 

We see that the dependent clause is connected with the 
word stream in the principal clause. 

In the manner of the preceding models, analyze the 
•following sentences. 



Syntax. 77 



SIMPLE. 



The garden produced weeds and flowers. No hope for me 
remains. 

Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountains. Often- 
times at Oxford I saw Levana in my dreams. 

COMPLEX. 

That the earth is round, is now well known. Whether we 
should go, was next discussed. We found several pieces of 
flint that the Indians had used. It is evident that he must 
soon fail. 

COMPOUND. 

Times change and men change with them. Caesar crossed 
the Rubicon and Pompey prepared for battle. 

Smack went the whip, round went the wheels. What 
in me is dark, illumine; what is low, raise and support. — This 
is a compound imperative sentence, consisting of two com- 
plex members. 

ANALYSIS BY USE OF DIAGRAM. 

When Ccesar had crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared 
for battle. 

To ascertain what kind of a sentence this is, the 
student should read its two parts separately. When this 
has been done, he will have little difficulty in determin- 
ing which clause is grammatically complete by itself. 
If he read the first, when Ccesar had crossed the Rubicon, 
he will perceive instantly that something is lacking to 
make it complete. If, then, he try the second, Pompey 
prepared for tattle, he must see at once that this is a 
complete sentence. The union of an independent and a 
dependent clause is called a complex sentence, and the 
structure of that given above may be analyzed in the 
manner following: 

Pompey prepared 

.when I ^Mor battle 



G 



Caesar I I had crossed I Rubicon 



the 



78 English Grammar. 

The man who hesitates when danger is at hand, is lost. 



the 


man | | is | | lost 


1 who . 

1 hesitates 




wbpn , 




danger | | is | 



""•at hand 

The preceding sentence contains two dependent clauses; 
the subject of the first dependent clause is the relative pro- 
noun who, which is also the connective; the subject of the 
second clause is danger. In the principal clause the word 
lost is the predicate-adjective. 

'Twas I that led the Highlanders 
Through deep Lochaber's snows. 

? T | | was | I 

that I 

led | | Hig hlanders 

, I " x the 

-through — 



r 



snows 



"Lochaber's 
deep"" 

In the principal clause the subject is H (contraction of it), 
the predicate-verb, teas, and the predicate-nominative /. 
The pronoun that is both the connective and the subject of 
the dependent clause. The predicate-verb led is modified by 
the adverbial phrase through deep Lochaber's snoivs. This 
consists of the preposition through and its object snows. 
This, in turn, is qualified by the proper noun Lochaber's, 
which is itself modified by the adjective deep. 

Before attempting to analyze a sentence like the follow- 
ing, it is better first to arrange it according to rhetorical 
rules: 

They met a boy at the bridge, who showed them the way. 



Syntax. 



79 



By juxtaposition the pronoun who seems to refer to 
bridge. Its real antecedent is apparent when the sen- 
tence is reconstructed thus : at the bridge they met a boy, 
who showed them the way. 

met I 



they 



boy 



-at- 



bridge 



•the 



-who- 



showed 



11 



them 



way. 



-••the 

The dependent clause has for its subject the pronoun who, 
which also connects the principal and the dependent clause. 
Its predicate-verb is showed, and the clause has a direct 
object (ivay) and an indirect object (them). 

Variety's the very spice of life 
That gives it all its flavour. 



Variety 1 1 's | Is 



nice 



'the ***of life 



that 

gives II it || flavour 

Nail**"* its 

In this sentence spice is the predicate nominative and 
is modified by the dependent clause. The subject and 
the connective is that; there is a direct and an indirect 
object. 



While grammatical analysis can not be reduced to a piece 
of mechanism, the use of diagrams has often been found 
valuable, especially by beginners. If the teacher prefers to 
ignore this method, he may employ that suggested in the 
preceding section. 



80 English Grammar. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

RULE I. 

A Verb must agree with its subject in number and 
person: as, "I learn," "Thou art improved," "The birds 
sing" 

Note 1. — The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is 
sometimes put as nominative case to the verb : as, "To see 
the sun is pleasant ;" "A desire to excel others in virtue and 
learning, is commendable." The infinitive mood may also be 
taken as the objective case after an active verb : as, "The 
boys love to play;" "The girls love to work." The infinitive 
mood in both the above instances has much the nature of a 
substantive, expressing the action itself which the verb sig- 
nified ; for the sentence, "The boys love to play," is the same 
as, "The boys love play; The girls love work" &c. 

Note 2. — Every form of the verb, except the infinitive mood 
or participle, ought to have a nominative case either ex- 
pressed or implied: as, "Awake, arise;" that is, "Awake 
ye, arise ye" 

Note 3. — Every nominative case, except the case absolute 
and when an address is made to a person, should belong to 
some verb either expressed or implied : as, "Who wrote this 
book?" "John," that is, "John wrote it." 

Note 4. — When a verb comes between two nouns, either 
of which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, 
it may agree with either of them, but most generally with 
that which stands nearest to it : as, "His meat teas locusts 
and wild honey ;" "The wages of sin is death." 

Note 5. — When the nominative case has no personal tense 
of the verb, but is placed before a participle, independent of 
the rest of the sentence, it is called the case absolute: as, 
"Shame being lost, all virtue is lost.' r 

Note 6. — The nominative case is generally placed before the 
verb; but it is sometimes put after the verb in a simple 
tense, and between the verb or participle in a compound 
tense. The following are the principal cases, in which the 
verb precedes the nominative. 

First. — When a question is asked, a command given, or a 
wish expressed: as, "Confidest thou in me? Read thou. 
Long live the king." 

Second. — When a supposition is made without the con- 
junction if: as, "Were it not for this;" "Had I been there." 

Third. — When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, 
there, them, thus, &c. : as, "Here am I; There was he slain; 
Then went one of the twelve; Thus ended the affair." . 



Syntax. 81 

Observations. — The phrases, as follows, as appears, &c, are 
sometimes called impersonal verbs, and should be confined 
to the singular number, and such as folloiv, such as ap- 
pear, to the plural; they have the following construction: 
"as it follows: as it appears; the arguments were such as fol- 
low," &c. The expressions, methinks and methought, seem to 
be an exception to Rule I : as, "Methinks I hear ;" "Methought 
that all was lost." The pronoun in the first person singular 
and in the objective case, is taken as nominative to the verb 
in the third person singular. These anomalies in the lan- 
guage are few, and seem to wear, in some respects, the char- 
acter of adverbial phrases. 

The pupils may be required to correct the exercises that 
follow the rules, either in writing or verbally, at the dis- 
cretion of the teacher; it would, however, be better to allow 
them, while tbey are studying the grammar for the first 
time, to correct the exercises verbally, and afterwards, to 
furnish a written correction of the same. The numbers to 
the exercises correspond with the numbers attached to the 
notes under the respective rule. As the rules of Syntax are 
generally short, questions on them have been dispensed with. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

The school of experience teach many useful lessons. 
Disappointments sinks the heart of man, but the renewal of 
hope give consolation. The fame of this person, and of his 
actions, were diffused throughout the country. The inquisi- 
tive is generally talkative. What signifies good opinions, 
when our conduct is bad. We may suppose there was more 
impostors than one. I have considered, what have been 
said on both sides. If thou would be healthy, live tem- 
perately. He canst not blame me. 

To live soberly and piously are required of all men. To 
restrain their passions, are their delight; to conquer evil 
habits, are their glory. To be temperate in eating and drink- 
ing, to take exercise in the open air, and to preserve the 
mind free from tumultuous emotions, is the best preserva- 
tives of health. That it is our duty to promote the purity of 
our minds and bodies, to be just and kind to our fellow crea- 
tures, and to be faithful to Him that made us, admit not of 
any doubt in a rational mind. The industrious love to work. 
The vain love to be admired. The studious desire to improve. 

If the privileges, which he has long enjoyed, should now 
be wrested from him, would be a flagrant injustice. These 
articles we imported from China, and are similar to those 
which we brought from Africa. 

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so 
constituted as ultimately to acknowledge genuine merit. 



82 English Grammar. 

The crown of virtue is peace and honor. His chief occu- 
pation and employment, were controversy. 

Him being destroyed, the place may be easily taken. The 
business being concluded, the Senate adjourned. The cloth 
being removed from the table, he desired the servant to bring 
in the wine. Charles being absent, Henry was unable to per- 
form the task. 

'Note. — In the last three sentences no errors will be found. 
The pupil is only required to point out the case absolute. 

RULE II. 

Two or more nouns, or a noun and a pronoun, in the 
singular number, connected by a coordinate conjunction, 
expressed or understood, must have verbs, nouns and 
pronouns agreeing with them in the plural number: as, 
"Socrates and Plato were wise; they were the most emi- 
nent philosophers of Greece/' 

Note 1. — If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are 
connected by a coordinate conjunction, be of several persons, 
in making the plural pronoun agree with them in person, the 
second takes place of the third, and the first of both : as, 
"Thou and he may share it between you;" "James, and thou 
and I, are attached to our country." 

Note 2. — When a coordinate conjunction connects two or 
more nouns, which refer to the same person or thing, the 
verb, noun or pronoun should be in the singular number: 
as, "That illustrious patriot and statesman is no more, he 
has passed from the stage of existence." 

Observation. — When the nouns are nearly related or hard- 
ly distinguishable in sense, and sometimes even when they 
are very different, some authors have thought it allowable to 
put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the singular number : 
as, "Tranquillity and peace dwells here.' r They support this 
construction by saying that the verb may be understood : as, 
"Tranquillity dwells here and peace dwells here;" but it is 
evidently contrary to the first principles of grammar to con- 
sider two distinct ideas as one. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

The prince and the people was to blame. Virtue, honor, 
nay, even self-interest, conspires to recommend the measure. 
Tranquillity and peace dwells here. In unity consists the 
welfare and security of every society. Time and tide waits 
for no man, Patience and diligence, like faith, removes 



Syntax. 83 

mountains. Washington and Jefferson was patriots, they 
was devoted to his country. 

Thou, the gardener, and the huntsman, may share the 
blame between them. Henry, John, and I, are daily em- 
ployed at their respective occupations. 

RULE III. 

When a disjunctive conjunction occurs between two 
nouns or pronouns, the verb, noun, or pronoun referring 
to them must be in the singular number : as, "Ignorance 
or negligence has caused this mistake ;" "John, James or 
Joseph intends to accompany me." 

Note 1. — When singular nouns, or a noun and a pronoun of 
different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must 
agree with that person which is placed nearest to it : as, "I 
or thou art to blame;" "Thou or I am in fault." 

Note 2. — When a disjunctive occurs between a singular 
noun or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb must agree 
with the plural noun or pronoun: as, "Neither poverty nor 
riches were injurious to them ;" "I or they were offended by 
it." But the plural noun or pronoun, when it can be con- 
veniently done, should be placed next to the verb. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

In many minds there are neither knowledge nor under- 
standing. Speaking impatiently, or anything that betrays 
inattention or ill-humor, are certainly criminal. When sick- 
ness, infirmity or reverse of fortune afflict us, the sincerity 
of friendship is proved. Death, or some worse misfortune, 
soon separate them. 

Either thou or I art mistaken. I or thou am the person. 
Thou or he art the man. George or I has written. 

Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was present. 
The ship was recovered, but neither the captain nor sailors 
was saved. The deceitfulness of riches or the cares of life, 
has choked the seeds of virtue in many a promising mind. 

RULE IV. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case: as, 
"Truth ennobles her/' "She comforts me;" "He closed 
the book/' "Virtue rewards her followers." 



84 English Grammar. 

Note 1. — Neuter verbs of motion and change are varied 
like the active, and also admit the passive form, retaining 
still the neuter signification : as, "I come, Thou contest, He 
comes, I go. He goes;" &c. Passive form, "I am come, Thou 
art come, He is come, I am gone, He is gone," &c. 

Note 2. — Some writers use certain neuter verbs as if they 
were active, putting after them the objective case, agreeably 
to the French construction of reciprocal verbs ; but this cus- 
tom is so foreign to the English idiom that it ought to be 
avoided : as, "The king soon found reason to repent him of 
his design." 

Observation. — Sometimes a part of a sentence is taken as 
the objective case after an active-transitive verb: as, "Let 
us consider, how pleasing is the practice of virtue, and how 
great will be her reward." 

Neuter verbs never act upon, or govern an objective case ; 
but certain active-intransitive verbs admit after them, in 
a few instances, an object, and may in those cases be taken 
as active-transitive : as, "To dream a dream ; He runs a race; 
He icallcs the horse ; She danced the child." 

Active-transitive verbs are sometimes improperly made 
intransitive: as, "He thinks to ingratiate with him by cal- 
umniating me," it should be "to ingratiate himself." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has 
corrupted, can not relish the simple pleasures of nature. 
He and they we know. The man, who he raised from 
obscurity, is dead. Who did they entertain so freely? That 
is the friend, who you should receive. He invited my 
brother and I to see him. He who committed the offense, 
you should correct, and not I, who am innocent. They who 
he had most injured he had the greatest reason to love. 

If such maxims and such practices prevail, what has be- 
come of decency and virtue? The whole obligation of that 
law and covenant was also ceased. The mighty rivals are 
now at length agreed. He was entered into the connection, 
before the consequences were considered. 

RULE V. 

Prepositions govern the objective case: as, "I have 
heard a good character of Iter;" "From him that is 
needy, turn not away." 

Note 1. — The prepositions to. for, and from, are often un- 
derstood, chiefly before pronouns: as, "Give me the book; 
Get me the paper ;" that is, iili to me, for me." 



Syntax. 85 

Note 2. — The preposition is often improperly separated 
from the relative which it governs: as. "Whom will I give it 
to?" instead of, "To whom will I give it?*' 

Participles are sometimes used as prepositions ; such as, 
excepting, respecting, concerning, &C, as, "He said nothing 
concerning my friend." 

Observation. — Different relations, and different senses, 
must be expressed by different prepositions : Thus we say, 
"He conversed with a person, upon the subject, in a certain 
house." 

An accurate and appropriate use of prepositions is of 
great importance. 

First. The preposition of is often improperly used for on 
in, &c. : as, "He is resolved of going to the city ;" "on go- 
ing." "He was dependent of the crown;" "on the crown." 
"He was eager of recommending it ;" "in recommending it." 

Second. To and for are often incorrectly used for other 
prepositions : as, "You have bestowed your favors to the most 
deserving person ;" "upon the most," &c. "He was accused 
for betraying the interests of the country;" "of betraying," 
&c. "In compliance to the declaration;" "with the declara- 
tion," &c. 

Thirdly. With respect to the prepositions, icith, on, upon, 
in, from, &c, they are frequently misapplied : as, "He recon- 
ciled himself with the king;" "to the king;" "Had I thought 
on it, I would have done it ;" "thought of it ;" "They should 
be informed in some parts of his character;" "about or con- 
cerning some parts." "He took them into his charge," "un- 
der his charge." "He should profit from experience ;" "by ex- 
perience." The preposition to is put before nouns of place, 
when preceded by verbs of motion ; as, "I went to the city." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

We are all accountable creatures, each for hisself. To 
who will I give it? It is not with I that he is engaged. 
They willingly, and of theirselves endeavored to take up the 
defence. He laid the suspicion upon somebody, I know not 
who, in the company. He is a friend, who I am highly in- 
debted to. Who do you speak to? 

To have a friend whom we heartily wish well to, and 
whom we are warmly concerned for, is a deplorable state. 
Whom did you receive it from? 

There was no water and he died for thirst. We can fully 
confide on none but the truly good. I have no occasion of 
his services. Many have profited from his advice. 



86 English Grammar. 

rule VI. 

Participles derived from active-transitive verbs govern 
the objective case : as, "Seeing his friend in distress, he 
assisted him;" "Having finished the letter, lie sent it to 
the office;" "Having finished his work, he submitted it." 

'Note 1. — When the perfect participle and imperfect tense 
are different in form, the latter must not be used for the for- 
mer : as, it is improper to say, "He begun; He run; They 
come, Charles done it ;" it should be, "He began; He ran; 
They came; Charles did it." 

Note 2. — When a participle, whether simple or compound, 
is taken as the subject of a verb, or the object of an action, 
or of a relation, it is called a participial noun, and may be 
used in the nominative or objective case : as, "Reading is 
useful;" "He commenced at the beginning;''' "Much depends 
on the rules being observed." 

Note 3. — A participial noun may govern the objective case: 
as, "John was sent to prepare the way by preaching repent- 
ance, and by instructing the people;" "Her employment is 
drawing maps." 

Note 4. — When a pronoun precedes the participial noun, 
the preposition of should follow it : as, "Much depends on 
their observing of the rule." 

Observation. — In some cases, when the participial noun is 
preceded by the article a, an, or the, it may admit the prepo- 
sition of after it: as, "This is a betraying of our trust.;" "By 
the observing of the rules, you may avoid mistakes." Parti- 
ciples are sometimes used without reference to any noun : 
as, "Generally speal'ing, his conduct was good." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

I could not avoid considering they, in some degree, as 
enemies to me. Suspecting not only thou, but they also, I 
have avoided all intercourse. 

By being too eager in the pursuit, he run a great risk of 
being disappointed. He was greatly heated, and drunk with 
avidity. He begun the work early. They have forgot it. 
He has mistook his true interest and he now finds himself 
forsook by former friends. The coat had no seam, but it 
was wove throughout. The French language is much spoke. 

RULE VII. 

Part 1. — One substantive governs another signifying 
a different thing in the possessive case : as, "My father's 
house ;" "Mans happiness ;" "Virtue's reward." 



Syntax. 87 

Part 2. — Pronouns in the possessive case are governed 
by the nouns which- follow them: as, "Every tree is 
known by its fruit." 

Note 1. — When several nouns come together in the possess- 
ive case, the apostrophe with the letter s, is annexed to the 
last, and in case of the others is understood : as, John and 
Eliza's books;" "This is my father, mother and uncle's ad- 
vice." But if any words intervene, it is proper that the sign 
of the possessive should be annexed to each: as, "They are 
John's, as well as Eliza's books." 

Note 2. — In poetry the additional s is frequently omitted, 
but the apostrophe retained : as, "The wrath of Peleus' son. 
Sometimes also the apostrophic s is omitted even in prose, 
particularly when it occasions a hissing sound, or a difficulty 
of pronunciation: as, for conscience' sake;" "For goodness' 
sake." 

Note 3. — Little explanatory circumstances should not be 
used between the possessive case and the words which fol- 
low it: as, "She extolled her friend's, as she called him, ex- 
cellent work;" it ought to be, "She extolled her friend's 
excellent work, as she called him ;" or better, "the excellent 
work of her friend." 

Note 4. — When a sentence contains terms signifying a 
name and an office, that which signifies the name of the per- 
son, should be put in the possessive case: as, "I left the 
parcel at Smith's the bookseller." 

A phrase in which the words are so closely connected as 
to admit of no pause before the conclusion, requires the pos- 
sessive sign at or near the end of the phrase: as, "Whose 
prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's;" "The 
lord mayor of London's authority." Nouns in apposition 
which follow each other in quick succession, have also the 
possessive sign: as, "The emperor Leopold's;" "For David 
my servant's sake." 

But when a pause is proper, and the governing word not 
expressed, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to 
the first, and understood in case of the rest: as, "I reside 
at Lord Stanford's, my old patron and benefactor. 

But when several subjects are considered as belonging 
separately to distinct individuals, the names of the individu- 
als should have the sia:n of the possessive annexed to each 
of them : as, "These are Henry's, William's, and Joseph's es- 
tates." It is, however, better to sny, "The estates belong in 
common to Henry, William, and Joseph." 

Note 5. — If the application of the possessive case should 
occasion an unpleasant sound, the particle of, which ex- 
presses the same relation, should be used in its place: as, 



88 English Grammar. 

"The general in the army's name ;" it should be, in the came 
of the army; "The common's vote;" "0/ the commons;" 
"The country's condition;" "Of the country;" "The king in 
Parliament's name ;" "in the name of Parliament." 

Note 6. — In some cases both the possessive termination and 
the preposition of may be used : as, "It is a discovery of Sir 
Isaac Newton's." 

Observation, — The pronoun his, when used apart from the 
noun to which it relates, is to be considered as the possess- 
ive case of the personal pronoun ; but when united with a 
noun, it should be regarded as a possessive adjective pro- 
noun: as, "The book is not mine, but Ms;" "This composi- 
tion is his;" "His house, his hat." 

When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a 
present participle, is used as one name, or to express an idea 
of circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put 
in the possessive case : as, "Much will depend on the pupil's 
composing, but more on his reading frequently." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

My ancestors virtue is not mine. His brothers offence 
will not condemn him. I will not destroy the city for ten 
sake r s. A mothers tenderness' and a fathers care, are na- 
tures gifts' for mans advantage. A mans manner's frequent- 
ly influences his fortune. 

It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer. 
Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation, was that of fisher- 
men. 

And he cast himself down at Jesus feet. Moses rod was 
turned into a serpent. For Herodias sake, his brother Phil- 
ip's wife. 

They condemned the prodigal's, as he was called, extrava- 
gant conduct. They obeyed the protector's, as they styled 
him, imperious mandates. 

I bought the paper at Moore r s the bookseller's. The silk 
was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's. This palace had 
been the grand sultan's Mahomet's. 

The world's government is not left to chance. She mar- 
ried my son's wife's brother. It is not necessary to have the 
physician's and surgeon's advice. 

This picture of the king's does not much resemble him. 
The estate of the corporation's is much encumbered. 

What can be the cause of Parliament neglecting the busi- 
ness? Much depends on the rule being observed. The time 
of William making the experiment arrived. 



Syntax. 89 

rule viii. 

One verb governs another that follows it or depends 
upon it, in the infinitive mood : as, "Cease to do evil ;" 
<r Learn to do well ;" "We ought to love our enemies." 

Note 1. — When the infinitive mood is preceded by the verbs 
bid, dare, need, see, make, hear, feel and let, the sign to is 
generally omitted: as, "I bade him do it; You dare not 
strike him ; They need not proceed; I saw him do it; I heard 
him say it; Let Charles read." 

Note 2. — The infinitive mood is frequently governed by ad- 
jectives, nouns, and participles : as, "He is eager to learn ;" 
"They have a desire to improve ;" "Endeavoring to persuade." 

Note 3. — The infinitive mood is sometimes made absolute: 
as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault." "To speak candid- 
ly, I do not know." The infinitive mood is occasionally put 
after the word as, in the following manner: "Since he was 
so candid as to acknowledge his fault, I will pardon him." 
"Fear nothing so much, as to commit sl fault." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

I dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence. 
He bade his friend to receive the favor. We have seen him 
to go into the house. They heard the bird to sing. Let the 
boy to read. He made me to do it. I bid him to say it. 
The multitude wondered when they saw the lame to walk, 
and the blind to see. Charles saw him to commit the fault. 
Let the bird to go. 

RULE IX. 
The verb To be, through all its variations, has the 
same case after it as before it : as, "I am he;" "Idleness 
is the parent of many vices ;" "We, at first, took it to be 
her." 

Note 1. — When the verb to be is understood, it has also the 
same case before and after it : as, "He seems the leader of 
the party ;" that is, "to be the leader," &c. 

Note 2. — Passive verbs which signify naming, calling, &c, 
and certain neuter verbs, have the same case before and 
after them : as, "He was called Ccesar;" "She was named 
Mary;" "The general was saluted emperor;" "Homer is 
styled the prince of poets;" "He became my friend." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

You may be afraid, it is him, indeed. Be composed, it is 
me. I would act the same part, if I were him. He so much 



90 English Grammar. 

resembled my brother, that at first sight, I took it to be he. 
After all their professions, can it be them. If it were not 
him, who do you imagine it to have been? Whom do you 
think he to be? 

RULE X. 

When two or more nouns come together and signify 
the same thing, they are put, oy apposition, in the same 
case: "as, "Johnson, the Senator, has arrived;" "Cicero, 
the orator/' "I consulted "Williams, the lawyer." 

Note 1. — Nouns which are placed by apposition in the 
same case always agree in number and person : as, "J, Paul 
the Apostle, write to you ;" "We, the representatives of the 
people." 

Note 2. — Nouns are frequently put in apposition to pro- 
nouns, and sometimes to sentences, or parts of sentences : 
as, "/, the president of the association/' "Can matter exist 
and not exist at the same time? an absurdity too gross to be 
confuted." 

Note 3. — When an address is made, the person or thing 
addressed is the nominative in apposition to thou, ye or you, 
generally understood ; this is sometimes called the nomina- 
tive case independent: as, "John, assist me," that is, "thou 
John;" "Gentlemen of the jury;" "ye or you, gentlemen;" 
"Oh, my country." 

Note 4. — Nouns used to describe other nouns, stand in 
apposition to the nouns they describe : John Hickman, of Bal- 
timore city, sold the book ;" "William Henry Harrison was 
president. Most grammarians would parse John Hickman 
as a proper noun. 

Observation. — Nouns in apposition appear to be thus situ- 
ated merely for the sake of brevity ; the interposition of the 
relative and the verb, will generally break the construction: 
as, "George I., king of Great Britain ;" that is, "George I., 
who was king," &c. ; "Cicero, the orator ;" "Cicero, who is 
styled the orator." The words king and orator, in these 
sentences, are in the nominative case, according to Rule IX. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Johnson, the senators, will propose the measure. I, James 
the first, kings of England. I sent it to ye the printer. Tay- 
lor, the generals of the army, send this order to Hamilton, 
the commanders of the fort. I Cresar, the consuls, issue the 
proclamation. We, the representative of the people, in con- 
gress assembled, assume the responsibility that may follow 
from this measure. 



Syntax. 91 

RULE XI. 

Part 1. — Pronouns must always agree with their ante- 
cedents, and nouns for which they stand in gender and 
number : as, "This is the friend whom I love ;" "That is 
the vice which I hate;" "The king and the queen have 
put on their robes. 

Part 2. — The relative is of the same person as the 
antecedent, and the verb agrees with it accordingly : as, 
"Thou who lovest wisdom;" "I who speak from experi- 
ence." 

Note 1. — Personal pronouns being used to supply the place 
of the noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence 
as the noun which they represent : as, "The king, he is just ;" 
"I saw lier, the queen;" it should be, "The king is just;" 
"I saw the queen." 

Note 2. — The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons, 
as well as to things, but after an adjective in the superlative 
degree, and the word same, it is generally used in preference 
to who or which: as, "Catiline's followers were the most 
profligate, that could be found in any city;" "He is the same 
man that I saw before." 

There are cases in which we can not conveniently dispense 
with this relative. 

First, after who, when used as an interrogative : as, "Who 
that has any sense of religion, would have argued thus?" 

Secondly, when persons make up a part of the antecedent : 
"The woman, and the estate, that became his fortune." 
This has already been referred to as a mixed antecedent. 

Note 3. — The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, &c, are 
elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding 
noun : as, "On which side soever he cast his eyes." 

Note 4. — The objective case of the personal pronouns is 
often improperly put for these and those: as, "Give me them 
books," instead of "those books." The nominative case, how- 
ever, is generally used in preference to those: as, "They 
who weep," instead of "Those who weep." 

Note 5. — The word w hat is sometimes improperly used for 
that: as, "They will not believe, but what I have been en- 
tirely to blame;" "but that.'' 

Note 6. — The relative pronoun who, should be confined to 
the proper names of persons, or to the general terms of men, 
women, &c, except when a term directly implies persons. 
The following examples are therefore incorrect: "The fac- 



92 English Grammar. 

tion who; France who; the court who;" which should be 
used. 

Note 7. — The application of the relative who to very young 
children seems to carry with it a harshness : as, "The child 
who." It is still more improperly applied to animals : as, 
"The fowl whom nature has taught." 

Note 8. — When the name of a person is used merely as a 
name, and does not refer to the person, the relative ivho 
ought not to be applied : as, "It is no wonder if such a man 
did not shine at court ; who was but another name for pru- 
dence and economy." Better thus, "ivhose name was," &c. 
lYhich is used to distinguish one of two persons : as, "Which 
of the two?" 

Note 9. — The interjections, 0! Oh! and Ah! require the 
objective case of a pronoun in the first person after them : 
as, "O me ! Oh me ! Ah me !" But the nominative case of the 
second person: as, "O thou persecutor! Oh ye hypocrites!" 

Note 10. — It is and it was, are often used in a plural con- 
struction: as, "It is a few great men, who decide." "It was 
the heretics, that first began to rail." 

Observation. — Every relative ought to have an antecedent 
to which it refers, expressed or implied : as, who is fatal to 
others, is so to himself;" that is, "the man who." The rela- 
tive sometimes refers to the whole or to a part of a sen- 
tence: as, "The resolution was offered, and adopted without 
due consideration, which produced great dissatisfaction." 

Whatever relative is used in a series of clauses relating 
to the same antecedent, the same relative ought generally to 
be used in them all. 

The following sentence is therefore incorrect: as, "It is 
remarkable that his proposition, against which so much has 
been said, and that, at first, was so much condemned, has 
finally triumphed ;" it should have been, "and which at first," 
&c. 

The neuter pronoun it, by an idiom peculiar to the Eng- 
lish language, is frequently joined in an explanatory sen- 
tence, to a noun or pronoun of the masculine or the femi- 
nine gender : as, "It was /." "It was a man or a woman." 
It is often omitted : thus we say, "As appears ; as follows ;" 
for, "As it appears," &c. 

The neuter pronoun it, is sometimes employed to express : 

First, the subject of a discourse or inquiry: as, "It hap- 
pened on a summer's day." "Who is it that calls me?" 

Second, the state or condition of any person or thing: as, 
"How is it with you?" 

Third, the thing that is the cause of any effect or event, 
or any person considered merely as the cause : as, "We heard 



Syntax. 93 

her say, it was not lie." "The truth is, it was I that sent the 
note." 

Care should be taken in the position of the relative, that 
no ambiguity may arise in the use of it : as, when we say, 
"The disciples of Christ whom we imitate," we mean either 
the imitation of Christ or his disciples. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. The 
male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the 
color of its species. Rebecca took goodly raiment which 
were with her in the house and put them upon Jacob. The 
wheel killed another man, which is the sixth, which lost 
their lives by this means. The fair sex, whose task is not 
to mingle in the labors of public life, has its own part to act. 

I do not think that any one should incur censure for being 
careful of their reputation; Thou who has been a witness 
of the fact, can give an account of it. 

Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges errone- 
ously. The cares of this world, they often choke the growth 
of virtue. Disappointments and afflictions, they often im- 
prove us. 

Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old 
Testament. Humility is one of the most amiable virtues 
which we can possess. They are the same persons who 
assisted us yesterday. 

Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no real merit. 
On whichsoever side they are contemplated. 

Which of them two persons has most distinguished him- 
self. None suffer injuries more impatiently than those that 
are most forward in committing them. 

He would not be persuaded but what I was in fault. 

He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. 
The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be ex- 
emplary. He was the ablest minister, which James pos- 
sessed. I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. 

Tbe child whom you have just seen. He is like a beast of 
prey, who destroys without pity. 

Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the 
favor of Nero, who was another name of cruelty. Flattery, 
whose nature is to deceive, should be avoided. 

Ah ! unhappy thee. Oh ! happy we surrounded by so many 
blessings. Ah I ! 

It is remarkable his continual endeavors to serve us after 
our ingratitude toward him. 



94 English Grammar. 

rule XII. 

Part 1. — The relative is the nominative case to the 
verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb : 
as, "The master who taught us;" "The trees which were 
planted." 

Part 2. — When a nominative comes between the rela- 
tive and the verb, the relative is governed by some word 
in its own member of the sentence : as, "He who pre- 
serves me, to whom I owe my being, and whom I serve, 
is eternal." 

Note. — When a question is asked, the noun or pronoun 
containing the answer must be in the same ease as that 
which contains the question: as, "Whose books are these?" 
"They are Johns."' "Of whom did he buy them?" Of the 
bookseller" 

Observation. — When the antecedent and relative both be- 
come nominatives, each to different verbs, the relative is 
nominative to the former, and the antecedent to the latter 
verb: as, "True philosophy, which is the ornament of our na- 
ture, consists in the love of our duty." 

EXERCISES EOR CORRECTION. 

We are dependent on each other's assistance ; whom can 
subsist by himself? If he will not hear his best friend, 
whom will be sent to admonish him? The persons, who con- 
science and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of for- 
tune. That is the student, to who I gave the book, and 
whom I am persuaded deserved it. 

RULE XIII. 

When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of 
different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in 
person with either, according to the sense : as, "I am the 
man who command you ;" or, "I am the man who com- 
mands you." 

Observation. — When the relative and the verb have been 
determined to agree with either of the preceding nomina- 
tives, that agreement must be preserved throughout the sen- 
tence: as, "I am the Lord, who maketh all things; and 
stretchcth forth the heavens," &c. 



Syntax. 95 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

I am the teacher, who adopt that sentiment, and main- 
tains the propriety of such measures. Thou art the man 
who hast often relieved me, and who has not deserted me in 
the hour of need. I am the man, who approves, and recom- 
mend the measure. 

RULE XIV. 

A collective noun, or a noun of multitude, may have 
a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either in the singu- 
lar or plural number, according to the unity or plurality 
of the idea which it conveys : as, "The meeting was 
large ;" "The committee were divided in their opinions ;" 
"The nation is powerful;" "My people do not consider, 
they have not known me/' 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

The people rejoices in that, which should give it sorrow. 
The flock, and not the fleece, are the objects of the shep- 
herd's care. The crowd were great. The British Parlia- 
ment are composed of a king, lords and commons. When a 
nation complain, the rulers should listen to their voice. Why 
do this generation look for greater evidence? 

RULE XV. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of 
verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns : as, "Candor is 
to be approved and practiced;" "I respect and revere the 



Note. — Conjunctions are sometimes made to connect dif- 
ferent moods and tenses of verbs, but in those instances, the 
nominative should be generally repeated : as, "He is dan- 
gerously ill, but Tie may recover." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Professing my regard, and to act differently, discover a 
base mind. My brother and him are well. You and us 
enjoy many privileges. She and him are very unhappily 
connected. To be moderate in our views, and proceeding 
moderately in pursuit of them, is the best way to ensure 
success. Between I and him there are some disparity of 
years. 



96 English Ukammak. 

RULE XVI. 

Part 1. — Some conjunctions require the indicative, 
and others the subjunctive, mood after them. It is a 
general rule, that, when any thing contingent or doubt- 
ful is implied, the subjunctive should be used: as, "If 
I were to write, he would not regard it;" "He will not 
be pardoned unless he repent." 

Part 2. — Conjunctions that are of a positive and abso- 
lute nature, require the indicative mood : "As virtue ad- 
vances, so vice recedes;" "He is healthy, because he is 
temperate." 

Note 1. — The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, 
whether, &c, generally require the subjunctive mood after 
them; also lest and that, when annexed to a command: as, 
"Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty ;" "Take heed that 
thou speak not to Jacob." 

Xote 2. — Both the indicative and subjunctive are some- 
times improperly put after the same conjunction, in the same 
sentence, and under similar circumstances : as, '7/ there 6e 
but one body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny; 
if there are two, there will be no casting voice;" it should 
be, "if there be two," &c. 

Note 3. — An ellipsis, in the conjunctive form of speech, 
often creates irregularities in the construction of sentences : 
as, "We shall overtake him though he run;" that is, "though 
he should run," &c. 

Note 4. — The auxiliary have, in the perfect tense of the 
subjunctive mood, is sometimes improperly used instead of 
hast and has: as, "If thou have determined, we must sub- 
mit;" "Unless he have consented;" it should be, "hast de- 
termined; has consented." 

Note 5. — The. auxiliaries had, shall and tvill, are some- 
times improperly used in the pluperfect and future tenses of 
the subjunctive mood, instead of hadst, shalt and wilt: as, 
"If thou had applied thyself;" "Unless thou shall speak the 
truth ;"' "If thou ivill undertake the business." 

Note G. — The auxiliaries of the potential mood, when ap- 
plied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination of 
the second person singular; we properly say: "If thou mayst 
or canst go ;" "Though thou mightst live," &c. But the sec- 
ond person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunc- 
tive is sometimes improperly used : as, "If thou loved him 
truly." "Though thou did conform." The verbs should be, 
"louedst and didst." 



Syntax. 97 

Note 7. — Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunc- 
tions belonging to them, either expressed or understood : as, 

Though — yet, nevertheless : "Though he was rich, yet he 
became poor." 

Whether — or: as, "Whether he will or not, I can not tell." 

Either — or: as, "I will either send it, or bring it myself." 

Neither — nor: as, "Neither he nor I am in fault."" 

As — as and as — so: expressing a comparison of equality: 
as, "She is as amiable as her sister." "As the stars, so shall 
thy seed be." 

As — so, and so — as: expressing a comparison of quality: 
as, "As one dieth, so dieth the other." "To see thy glory so 
as I have seen," &c. 

So — as: with a negative and adjective, expressing a com- 
parison of quality : as, "Pompey was not so great a general 
as Caesar." 

So — that: expressing a consequence: as, "He was so 
fatigued, that he could scarcely move." 

Observation. — Contingency and futurity both concur in the 
proper use of the subjunctive mood; therefore, whenever con- 
tingency and futurity are not expressed, it is not proper to 
turn the verb from its signification of present time, or to 
vary its form or termination. 

If the person or thing, which forms the subject of dis- 
course, be represented in a certain state or condition, or in 
the act of performing some action, at the present time, the 
verb should be in the indicative mood, although preceded 
ly a conjunction implying contingency: as, "Though he is 
sick, he may recover." "// he thinks as he speaks, he may 
be trusted." 

In the above examples, contingency is expressed without 
futurity: in the following, contingency and futurity are 
both implied, and the use of the subjunctive is proper : as, 
"He will not be pardoned unless he repent." "If thou injure 
another, thou wilt injure thyself. If with but following it, 
when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive mood : as, 
"If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke." The parti- 
cle as, after the words such and many, has the force of a 
relative pronoun : as, "Let such as presume." "As many as 
were ordained." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. Though 
he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply, unless 
he advances more forcible reasons. I shall walk in the 
fields to-day unless it rains. As the teacher were present, 



98 English Grammar. 

the pupils behaved properly. She disapproved the measure, 
because it were very improper. 

I will submit, if he convinces me of my error. Unless I 
am present, he will not succeed. If John was to accompany 
me, I would feel safe. Despise no condition of life, lest it 
happens to be your own Let him that is sanguine take heed 
lest he miscarries. Take care that thou breakest not the 
rules. 

If one man prefer a life of industry, it is because he has 
an idea of comfort in wealth; if another prefers a life of 
gayety, it is from a like idea concerning pleasure. No man 
engages in that business, unless he aim at reputation, or 
hopes for some advantage. 

Unless he learns faster, he will be no scholar. Though he 
falls, he shall not be utterly cast down. On condition that 
he comes, I will consent to stay. Till repentance composes 
his mind, he will be a stranger to peace. Though virtue 
appear severe, she is truly amiable. Unless the account 
deceive me, my estate is considerably improved. 

If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagements. 
Though he have proved his right, he will not exact it. 
Unless he have improved, he is not fit for the office. 

Unless thou shall see the propriety of the measure, we 
shall not desire thy support. Though thou will not ac- 
knowledge it, thou canst not deny the fact. If thou had 
succeeded in the measure. 

If thou may share the labor. Unless thou can support 
the cause, give it up. Though thou might have foreseen the 
danger, thou couldst not have avoided it. If thou could 
convince him. If thou did send it. 

Neither hunger or cold, could weaken his resolution. He 
is not as learned as his brother. He was so fatigued, as he 
could scarcely move. Charles would not eat it, nor suffer 
John to do so. He is not as eminent and as much esteemed, 
as he thinks. I will present it myself, or direct it to be given 
to him. I must be so candid as to own the fault. Be ready 
to succor such persons who need assistance. Germany ran 
the same risk as Italy had. 

RULE XVII. 

Part 1. — Every adjective, and every adjective pro- 
noun belongs to some noun expressed or understood : as, 
"He is a good, as well as a wise, man ;" "Few are happy;" 
that is, "persons." 



Syntax. 99 

Part 2, — Adjective pronouns must agree in number 
with the nouns to which they relate: as, "This book;" 
"these books;" "that book;*' "those books;" "another 
road;" "other roads. *' 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Note 1. — The phrases this means and that means are used 
only in reference to the singular number; and tlwse means 
and those means, in the plural: as, "By this means they 
escaped." "By that means he gained his point." "The 
pupils were attentive, industrious and obedient; and by 
these means they acquired knowledge." 

Note 2. — When two persons or things are 1 spoken of in a 
sentence, that refers to the former and this to the latter: as, 
"Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; that, tends to 
excite pride; this, discontent." 

Note 3. — The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, 
either, agree with nouns, pronouns and verbs of the singu- 
lar number only: as, "Each of the workmen received his 
wages." "Every tree is known by its fruit." "Either of the 
two is eligible." 

ADJECTIVES. 

Note 4. — Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as 
adverbs: as, "Indifferent honest; excellent well," &c. ; for 
"Indifferently honest; excellently well;" and adverbs again 
are ofteu improperly used for adjectives : as, "The tutor 
addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his 
offence ;" "suitable" 

Note 5. — Double comparisons and superlatives should be 
avoided : as, "A icorser conduct ;" "A more serener temper ;" 
"The most strictest sect;" it should be, "worse conduct; 
more serene; strictest''' &c. In Shakespeare, however, we 
have "the most unkindest cut." The older English authors 
sometimes violated this rule. 

Note 6. — In some cases the adjective should not be sepa- 
rated from the noun to which it belongs : as, "A large enough 
number;" it should be, "A number large enough." 

Note 7. — In English the adjective is usually placed before 
the noun: as, "A generous man;" but it is sometimes put 
after the noun. 

When something depends upon the adjective, or when 
it gives a better sound : as, "A man generous to his enemies." 
"A tree three feet thick." 



100 English Grammar. 

When the adjective is emphatic : as, "Alexander the 
Great;" "Louis the Bold." 

When several adjectives belong to the same noun : as, 
"A man, just, wise and charitable." 

When the verb to be, in any of its forms, comes between 
a noun and an adjective, the adjective may either precede or 
follow the noun : "The man is happy, or happy is the man, 
who lives virtuously." 

When the adjective is preceded by an adverb, or ex- 
presses some circumstance of a noun placed after an active 
verb : as, "A boy regularly studious." "Vanity often renders 
its possessor despicable." 

Observation. — Adjective pronouns in the plural number 
will sometimes properly associate with a singular noun : as, 
"Our desire is that you accept the favor." "We received 
their resignation." 

The adjective many, with the indefinite article a after it, is 
sometimes used with a noun in the singular number: as, 
"Many a gem," "Many a flower," &c. These phrases refer 
to many gems and many flowers, considered separately and 
not collectively. 



EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. 
Instead of improving yourselves, you have been playing 
this two hours. Those sort of favors did real injury. The 
board is three foot broad. How many sorrows should we 
avoid, if we were not industrious to make it. 

Charles was extravagant, and by this mean became poor. 
He obtained his end by that mean. Industry is the mean of 
obtaining competency. 

Religion raises man above himself; irreligion sinks him 
beneath the brutes ; that, binds him down to a poor, pitiable 
speck of perishable earth; this, opens for him a prospect to 
the skies. 

Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which 
they are entitled. Every person, whatever be their station, 
are bound by the duties of morality and religion. Every 
leaf, and drop of water, teem with life. Neither of those 
men have an idea, that their opinions are ill-founded. On 
either sides of the river. 

She reads proper, writes neat, and composes accurate; 
He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near ex- 
hausted. They live conformable to the rules. We may 
reason very clear. He was exceeding beloved. He came 
agreeable to his promise, and conducted himself suitable to 
the occasion. He speaks fluent, and reads excellent. He 



Syntax. 101 

lived agreeable to the dictates of reason. The study of 
Syntax should be previously to that of punctuation. 

It Is more easier to build two chimnies than to maintain 
one. The nightingale has the most sweetest voice in the 
grove. That is the most elegantest tree on the farm. She 
is more beautifuler than her sister. The Supreme Being is 
the most wisest and most best of beings. 

He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard by the 
whole assembly. Thomas has received a new pair of gloves ; 
he lives with an old rich man. The two first in the row are 
cherry trees, the two others are pear trees. 

RULE XVIII. 

Two negatives in the same sentence are equivalent 
to an affirmative : as, "His language was not un gram- 
matical /' that is, "it was grammatical." . He need not 
do nothing ;" that is, "he should do something." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Neither riches, nor honors, nor no such perishable things. 
can satisfy the desires of an immortal spirit. There cannot 
be nothing more insignificant than vanity. They did not 
receive no letter. I am resolved not to comply with no pro- 
posals they may offer. 

RULE XIX. 

Part 1.— The indefinite article agrees with nouns in 
the singular number only, individually or collectively: 
as, "A Christian;" "An infidel;" "A score;" (( A thou- 
sand." 

Part 2. — The definite article may agree with nouns, 
either in the singular or plural number: as, "The gar- 
den ;" "The house ;" "The stars." 

Note 1. — The articles are often properly omitted : when 
used, they should be justly applied, according to their dis- 
tinct nature : as, "Charity is a virtue." "The sea is green.' 
"A lion is bold." 

Note 2. — It may, in general, be sufficient to prefix the arti- 
cle to the former of two words, in the same sentence, unless 
for the sake of emphasis: as, "He sold tlic house and farm." 
"It was for the benefit of the widow, and the orphans." 

Observation. — A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes 
made, by either the use or omission of the article a: If I 



102 English Grammar. 

say, "He behaved with a little reverence ;" the meaning is 
positive ; if I say, "He behaved with little reverence," the 
meaning is negative. In common conversation or in familiar 
style, we frequently omit the articles which might be in- 
serted in writing, especially in a grave style: as, "At worst, 
time might be gained by this expedient." "At the worst." 
"Give me here John Baptist's head." "John the Baptist's." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

A Christian countries. An enemies in the field. A 
brothers of my uncle. A partners of my father. 

The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are four ele- 
ments of the philosophers. The reason was given to man, 
to control his passions. A man is the noblest work of the 
creation. Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. 

He bought the house and the garden. He paid for the hat 
and the coat. The fear of shame and desire of approbation 
prevent many bad actions. He was influenced by a just and 
generous principle. 

RULE XX. 

In the use of words and phrases which in point of time 
relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should 
be carefully observed : as, "The Lord hath given, and the 
Lord hath taken away;" it should be, "The Lord gave 
and the Lord hath taken away/' 

Note 1. — Verbs that express desire, hope, intention or com- 
mand, must invariably be followed by the present, and not 
the perfect of the infinitive mood: as, "It is now a long 
time since I commanded him to have done it ;" it should be, 
"to do it." 

Observation. — When the action or event, signified by the 
verb in the infinitive mood, is contemporary or future with 
respect to the verb to which it is chiefly related, the present 
of the infinitive should be used: as, "Last week I intended 
to write" but when the action or event is neither contem- 
porary nor future, the perfect infinitive should be employed : 
as, "It would have afforded me great pleasure, as often as I 
reflected upon it, to hare been the messenger of such intelli- 
gence." 

If the thing asserted be immutably the same, or supposed 
to be so, the present tense must be used : as, "Virtue is com- 
mendable at any season of life." But if a declaration be 
made relative to something that is not always the same, or 
supposed to be so, the past tense should be applied : as. "The 
judge said that he was in favor of the measure." "Colum- 



Syntax. 103 

bus believed that the earth is round. In a sentence like the 
last, the use of ivas instead of is would have a peculiar effect. 
"That the earth was round" might imply that its shape had 
changed. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

The next New Year's day, I shall be at school three years. 
He that was dead, sat up and began to speak. I should be 
obliged to him, if he will gratify me in that particular. I 
have compassion on the multitude, because they continue 
with me now three days. John will earn his wages, when 
his service is completed. Be that as it will, he can not jus- 
tify his conduct. After we visited London, we returned to 
your peaceful home. 

I propose to go to York in a few months, and after I shall* 
finish my business there, to proceed to America. From the 
little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have 
been a man of letters. I always intended to have rewarded 
my son according to his merits. We have done no more than 
it was our duty to have done. 

RULE XXI. 

When the qualities of different things are compared, 
the latter noun or pronoun agrees with the verb, or is 
governed by the verb or preposition, expressed or under- 
stood : as, "Thou art wiser than I/' that is, "than I am ;" 
"They love him more than me," that is, "more than they 
love me." 

The relative icho seems to form an exception to this rule ; 
it sometimes follows than in the objective case: as, "Alfred, 
tJian whom a greater king never reigned." 

The phrase than whom is, however, avoided by the best 
modern writers. The above sentence might be rendered 
much better by changing it in the following manner: "A 
greater king than Alfred never reigned." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

They are much greater gainers than me. The under- 
taking was much better executed by his brother than he. 
In some respects we have had as many advantages as 
them ; but they have had a greater privilege than us. 
They know how to write as well as him ; but he is a better 
grammnrian than them. Who wrote this? Not me. Who 
revealed the secrets? Not him. 



104 English Grammar. 



RULE XXII. 



Part 1. — To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to ex- 
press our ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of 
some words, is frequently admitted: as, "He was a 
learned, wise and good man," instead of "He was a 
learned man, he was a wise man, lie was a good man." 

Part 2. — But if the omission of words would obscure 
the sentence, weaken its force or be attended with any- 
other impropriety, they must be expressed: as, "We are 
likely to love, who love us;" the word them should be 
supplied. 

Note. — Every compound sentence is more or less ellipti- 
cal : the following examples will show the ellipses of the 
different parts of speech : 

Of the article : as, "A man, woman, and child ;" that is, 
"A man, a woman, and a child." 

Of the noun: as, "The laws of God and man;" that is, 
"The laws of God and the laics of man." 

Of the adjective: as, "A delightful garden and orchard;" 
that is, "A delightful garden and a delightful orchard." 

Of the pronoun : as, "I love and respect him ;" that is, "I 
love him, and I respect him." 

Of the verb: as, "The man was old and crafty;" that is, 
"The man was old, and the man was crafty." 

The auxiliaries, do, did, hare, had, shall, will, may, might, 
&c, are frequently used alone to avoid the repetition of the 
verb: as "He loves intemperance, but I do not;" that is, "I 
do not love," &c. "We succeeded, but he did not;" that is, 
"He did not succeed.'" 

Of the adverb : as, "He spoke and acted wisely ;" that is, 
"He spoke wisely, and acted wisely." 

Of the preposition : as, "He spoke to every man and 
woman ;" that is, "fo every woman." This day last year ;" 
that is, "oh this day in last year." 

Of the conjunction : as, "I confess the power, wisdom and 
love of the Creator;" that is, the power and wisdom and 
love," &c. 

Of the interjection: as, "Oh! pity and shame!" that is, 
Oh pity! Oh shame!" 

GENERAL RULES. 

Whenever the omission of any part of speech obscures 
the sentence, or weakens its force, that part of speech 
should be supplied; and, on the other hand, whenever the 



Syntax. 105 

repetition of any part of speech becomes disagreeable or 
tedious, it should be omitted. 

Nouns of time, space, distance, value, dimension, &c, are 
often governed by some preposition understood: as, "He 
remained a day;" "for or during a day." He leaped nine 
feet;" "over or through the space of nine feet," "They went 
that way ;" "in that way." "The book is worth a dollar ;" 
that is, "equal in value to a dollar." The wall is three feet 
high ;' r that is, "the wall is high to three feet," or feet may 
be in the nominative case, according to Rule IX. 

The repetition of a part of speech for the sake of empha- 
sis is often proper: as, "I have seen him, and I have heard 
him, too." In the ellipsis of the adjective it ought to be 
quite as proper, when joined to the latter substantive as to 
the former ; but it should not be joined to nouns of different 
numbers : as, "A magnificent house and gardens ;" better, 
"A magnificent house and fine gardens." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

I gladly shunned, who gladly fled from me. What is it 
men mean by distributive justice? His honor, interest and 
religion are all embarked in this undertaking. The fear of 
death, nor hope of life, could make him submit to a dis- 
honest action. 

RULE XXIII. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of case, 
tense, &c, require an appropriate situation in the sen- 
tence; for the most part before adjectives, after verbs, 
active and neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary 
and the verb : as, "He made a very sensible discourse ; he 
spoke forcibly, and was attentively heard by the whole 
assembly." 

Note. — Generally, the adverb never precedes the verb, or 
is placed between the auxiliary and the verb : as, "I never 
was there." "He was never seen to laugh." Ever is some- 
times improperly used for never: as, "I seldom or ever see 
him ;" for, "I seldom or never see him." 

Some adverbs are improperly used for nouns and rela- 
tive pronouns: as, "In 1687 the company was chartered, 
since when it began to prosper ;' r that is, "since which time." 
"They framed a protestation, where they repeated all their 
former claims;" that is, "in which" &c. "It is worth their 
while;" that is, "their time and pains." 

The adverbs, here, there, and where are often applied to 
verbs signifying motion, instead of hither, thither, whither: 



106 English Grammar. 

as, "He caine here hastily;" "They rode there;" "Where are 
you going?" They would better be: "He came hither;" 
"They rode thither;" "Whither are you going?" Thus the 
poet, "Come hither, Evan Cameron, and sit beside my knee." 
De Quincey, one of our greatest masters of style, uses the 
older forms, hither, whither and thither. The 'latter form 
of expression is, however, nearly obsolete, unless in grave 
style. The sentences, "He arrived here to-day;" "They 
went there last week;" "Where will you go?" &c, are used 
by good modern writers. 



EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

He was pleased not often, because he was vain. William 
nobly acted. "We may happily live, though poor. We may 
expect reasonably that he will come. It can not be imperti- 
nent therefore to remonstrate. We always, should prefer 
our duty to our pleasure. It is impossible continually to be 
at work. These things should be never separated. So well 
educated a boy gives great hopes to his friends. They 
could not persuade him, though they were never so elo- 
quent. He comes never at a proper time. 

RULE XXIV. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to one 
another ; a regular and dependent construction should 
be carefully preserved throughout. The following sen- 
tence is, therefore, inaccurate : "He was more beioved, 
but not so much admired as Cinthio ;" it should be, "He 
was more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much 
admired." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Several alterations and additions have been made to the 
work. The first proposal was essentially different, and 
inferior to the second. He is more bold and active, but not 
so wise and studious as his companion. Thou hearest the 
sound of the wind, but thou canst not tell whence it cometh 
and whither it goeth. Neither has he, nor any other per- 
sons, suspected so much dissimulntion. The court of France, 
or England, was to have been the umpire. In the reign of 
Henry II., all foreign commodities were plenty in England. 
There is no talent so useful towards success in business, or 
which puts men more out of the reach of accidents, than 
that quality generally possessed bv persons of cool temper, 
and is, in common language, called discretion. 



Prosody. 107 

Part IV. 

PROSODY 

In its narrowest sense, Prosody treats of versifica- 
tion. In a wider sense it includes also a consideration 
of figures of speech and punctuation. Under Prosody 
some authors treat Pronunciation. 

ACCENT 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice 
on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be 
better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them : 
as in the word presume the stress of the voice must be 
on the letter u. The syllable sume receives the accent. 

Note 1. — Every English word of more than one syllable has 
one of them distinguished from the rest by accent. Words 
of two syllables have necessarily one of them accented, and 
but one; unless for the sake of emphasis we sometimes lay 
an equal stress upon two successive syllables : as, "Direct." 
For the accent of dissyllables, no general rule can be given. 
Trisyllables and polysyllables generally follow the accent of 
the words from which they are derived : as, "Love-li-ness ;" 
"con'-tin-en-cy. " 

Note 2. — Words of three or more syllables in addition to 
the chief or primary accent often have one or more second- 
ary accents : as, in-dem-ni-fi-ca-tion, an-te-ce-dent. 

QUANTITY 

The quantity of a syllable is the time which is occu- 
pied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or 
short. Quantity is not the same as accent. 

A vowel or a syllable is long when the accent is on the 
vowel, which occasions it to be slowly joined, in pronun- 

Questions. —What is prosody '! What is accent ? What is sec- 
ondary accent? What quantity? 



108 English Gram map. 

ciation, to the following letter : as, "Fall, bale, mood, 
feature. ' ' 

A syllable is short when the accent is on the conso- 
nant, which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined 
to the succeeding letter : as, an't, bon'net, hun'ger." 

A long syllable requires double the time of a short one 
in pronouncing it: thus, "Mate" and "Note" should be 
pronounced as slowly again as "Mat'' and "Not." 

EMPHASIS 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of 
voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on 
which we design to lay particular stress, and to show 
how it affects the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the 
emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular 
tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

Note. — On the right management of the emphasis depends 
the life of pronunciation. If no emphasis be placed on any 
words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and life- 
less, but the meaning will often be left ambiguous. If the 
emphasis be incorrectly placed, we sha 1 pervert and confound 
the meaning wholly. To give a common instance : such a 
simple question as this, "Do you ride to town to-day?" is 
capable of no fewer than four different interpretations, ac- 
cording as the emphasis is differently placed on the words. 
If it be pronounced thus: "Do you ride to town to-day?" 
the answer may naturally be, "No, we send a servant in our 
stead." If thus: "Do you ride to town to-day?" answer, 
"No, we intend to walk." "Do you ride to town to-day?" 
"No, we ride into the country." "Do you ride to town to- 
day?" "No, but we shall to-morrow." In like manner, in 
solemn discourse, the whole force and beauty of an expres- 
sion often depend on the emphatic word. 

PAUSES 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are total ces- 
sations of the voice during a perceptible and, in many 
cases, a measurable space of time. 

Questions. — When is a vowel long? When is a syllable short? 
What does a long syllable require? What is emphasis? What are 
pauses ? 



Prosody. 109 

TONES 

Tones are different from both emphasis and pauses, 
consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or 
variations of sound which we employ in the expression 
of our sentiments. 

Note. — Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with 
a degree of tone or inflection of the voice, but tones, pecu- 
liarly so called, affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes 
even the whole of a discourse. 

To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only ob- 
serve, that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a con- 
tinual state of activity, emotion, or agitation, from the dif- 
ferent effects which those ideas produce in the speaker. 

VERSIFICATION 

Versification is either the act or the art of making 
verse. It is sometimes used to denote that peculiar 
structure of language which distinguishes poetry from 
prose. At the outset the pupil should be told that all 
verse is not poetry. 

POETRY 

Poetry is difficult to define. For centuries literary 
critics, and even poets themselves, have attempted to tell 
us what it is, but we are still far from having a perfectly 
satisfactory definition. We can only do what others 
have done ; that is, state some of its qualities. Poetry is 
"simple, sensuous and passionate" language. It has 
imagery and it has musical qualities, but, whatever it 
possesses, it must have rhythm. Without this last qual- 
ity it cannot be poetry. 

RHYTHM 

Rhythm is the effect produced by a succession of ac- 
cented and unaccented syllables. 

RHYME 

Rhyme is sound correspondence. It may be single, 
double or triple. Mind and kind are single rhymes; 

Questions..— What As tone? What is versification? What is 
rhythm? What is rhyme? 



110 English Grammar. 

floating and boating are double rhymes; importunate 
and unfortunate are triple rhymes. 

Note. — Poetical Feet. — A certain number of connected 
syllables form a foot. 

TRISYLLABLE 

The most familiar of poetical rhythms are : 
An Iambus u — as, a-long. 
A Trochee u — " sail-mg. 
An Anapest u u — u con-tra-vene. 
A Dactyl — u u il way-ward-ness. 

Other well known rhythms are : 

The Spondee as, sea-salt. 

The Pyrrhic u u "on the. 

Note. — Writers on poetics name several other rhythms : 
as, the Amphibrach, the Tribrach, etc. Their consideration 
would be out of place in an elementary work. 

A line of poetry is called a Verse. A Stanza is a 
group of verses. The line or verse is divided into feet. 
A poetic foot, therefore, is the smallest rhythmical 
division of a verse or line. 

"The sweet|est thing | that ev|er grew 
Beside | a hu|man door."| 

The first verse has four Iambic feet; the second has 
three. 

The Iambic, Trochaic, Dactylic and Anapestic 
are called the principal feet; as poetical compositions 
consist chiefly of them, the other feet, called secondary, 
are introduced to diversify the numbers and to improve 
the verse. English verse may be divided into several 
species, according to the number of feet of which it is 
composed. 

What is a verse? A stanza? Name the principal feet? 



Prosody. Ill 

Iambic. — The Iambic verse consists of several kinds. 

1. The first form consists of one Iambus and a short 
syllable: as, 

Disdaining, 
Complaining. 

2. The second of two Iambuses : as, 

To me | the rose, 
No long|er grows. 

Each verse or line is composed of two Iambic feet. 

3. The third consists of three Iambuses : as, 

In pla|ces far | or near, 
Or fa|mous, or | obscure. 

Each verse has three feet. 

4. The fourth consists of four Iambuses : as, 

And may [ at last | my wealry age, 
Find out | a peace |ful her|mitage. 

5. The fifth, called the Heroic measure, consists of 

five: as, 

A heap [ of dust | alone | remains | of thee ; 
'Tis all | thou art, [ and all | the proud | shall be. 

6. The sixth form is called the Alexandrine measure: 
as, 

For thou | art but [ of dust, | be hum|ble and [ be wise. 

7. The seventh form consists of seven Iambuses, gen- 
erally written in two lines ; the first containing four and 
the second three feet : as, 

When all J thy mer|cies, O | my God! 

My ri|sing soul | surveys; 
Transported with the view I'm lost, 

In wonder, love, and praise. 

This is often used in writing ballads. 

Trochaic. — The Trochaic verse is also of several 
kinds. 

1. The first consists of one Trochee and a long syl- 
lable : as, 

Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace. 



112 English Grammar. 

2. The second of two, and sometimes a long syl- 
lable: as, 

On the | mountain, 
By a fountain. 

3. The third, of three, and sometimes with an addi- 
tional long syllable : as, 

Restless | mortals | toil for | nought. 

4. The' fourth, of four Trochees : as, 

Round us | roars the | tempest | louder. 

5. The fifth, of five ; but very seldom used : as, 

All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots. 

6. The sixth form consists of six Trochees : as, 

On a | mountain, | stretched be|neath a | hoary | willow. 

Dactylic. — This measure is very uncommon : as, 

Bird of the | wilderness, 
Blithesome and | cumberless. 

Anapestic. — Of this measure there are several kinds. 

1. The shortest form consists of one Anapest: as, 

But in vain, 
They complain. 

2. The second form consists of three : as, 

O ye woods, | spread your bran|ches apace. 

- 3. The third species consists of four Anapests : as, 
And the sheen j of their spears | was like stars | on the sea, 
When the blue | waves roll night |ly on deep | Galilee. 

Byron. 

POETIC PAUSES 

There are two kinds of pauses in poetry, called the 
sentential and harmonic. The sentential takes place 
after the comma, semicolon, &c, as the sense may re- 
quire; the harmonic, which tends to preserve the melody 
of the verse, is divided into the final and the ccesural 
pause. The final pause takes place at the end of nearly 
every line, although the sense may not require it. Some- 
times, indeed, one line flows, without any sort of pause, 
into another. This is known as the run-on line. The 



PUNCTUATION. 113 

csesural pause divides the line into equal or unequal 
parts. 

In the following verses we have illustrations of the 
run-on line : 

The day is done, and the darkness 

Falls from the wings of night. — Longfellow 

* * * approach thy grave 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 

Bryant. 

The ccesural pause may occur anywhere within the 
line, but it is found most commonly about the middle. 

Ex. — Warms in the sun 1 1 refreshes in the breeze, 

Glows in the stars 1 1 and blossoms in the trees. 

Pope. 

PUNCTUATION 

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written com- 
position into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points 
or stops, for the purpose of showing its grammatical con- 
struction and assisting in its delivery. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semi- 
colon, a pause double that of the comma; the Colon, 
double that of the semicolon; and the Period, double 
that of the colon. 

The points are marked in the following manner : 
The Comma , The Colon : 

The Semicolon ; The Period . 

COMMA 

2. The Comma usually separates those parts of a sen- 
tence which, though very closely connected in sense, re- 
quire a pause between them : as, "Charles is beloved, es- 
teemed and respected." 

Questions. — 1. What is punctuation? What does the comma, 
&c., represent? ITow are the points marked? 
2. What does the comma separate? 



114 English Grammar. 

RULES FOR THE COMMA 

Rule 1. — A simple sentence, in general, requires no 
point, except a full stop at the end: as, "Virtue refines 
the affections." However, when a simple sentence is 
long, and the nominative separated from the verb by 
some intervening words, a comma should be inserted im- 
mediately before the verb : as, "The good taste of the 
present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation 
of the English language." This is called close punctua- 
tion. In the example given many punctuators would 
omit the comma. 

Rule 2. — When the connection of the different parts of 
a sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase a com- 
ma is usually introduced at the beginning and the end of 
this phrase : as, "I remember, with gratitude, his kind- 
ness to me." 

Rule 3. — When two or more parts of speech occur in 
the same construction, without a conjunction between 
them, they should be parted by a comma: as, "Truth, 
justice and mercy dwell here." "Plain, honest truth, 
wants no artificial covering." "David was a brave, wise, 
just and pious man." In a letter, we may advise, exhort, 
comfort, request and discuss." "He lived esteemed, re- 
spected and loved by all." "He acted prudently, steadily 
and vigorously." But when two parts of speech are im- 
mediately connected by a conjunction, the comma should 
not be introduced : as, "How great the contrast between 
virtue and vice, wisdom and folly." "He is just and 
honest." "Study expands and elevates the mind." 

Rule 4. — Participles, followed by something that de- 
pends on them, are generally separated from the rest of 
the sentence by commas : as, "The king, approving of the 
plan, put it in execution." 

Rule 5. — When a conjunction is separated from the 
word to which it belongs, the intervening phrase should 
have a comma at each extremity : as, "They set out early, 
and, before evening, arrived at the destined place." 



Punctuation. 115 

Rule 6. — Expressions, in direct address, are followed 
by a comma: as, "My son, give me thy heart;" "I am 
obliged to yon, my friends, for your many favors." 

Rule 7. — The case absolute, and the infinitive mood 
absolute, should be separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by commas : as, "His father dying, he succeeded to 
the estate." "To confess the truth, I was much in 
fault." 

Rule 8. — Nouns in apposition, when something is 
added by way of explanation, should be set off by com- 
mas : as, "Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles ;" but if such 
nouns are single, they are not separated, as "Paul the 
Apostle," "The Emperor Antoninus." 

Rule 9. — Simple members of sentences, connected by 
comparatives, are generally distinguished by commas, 
unless the sentences are very short : as, "As the hart 
panteth after the water, so my soul panteth after thee." 
"It is better to acquire wisdom than gold." 

Rule 10. — A remarkable expression, a short observa- 
tion, or a quotation, may be properly marked by a com- 
ma: as, "He often made use of these words, know thy- 
self/' "Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." 

Rule 11. — Eelative pronouns, being connective words, 
generally admit a comma bef ore them : as, "He preaches 
sublimely, who lives virtuously." "This is the tree, 
which produces no fruit." But if the relative is fol- 
lowed by a phrase, tending to confine the antecedent to 
some particular sense, the comma should be omitted be- 
fore the relative : as, "A man who deviates from the 
truth, will not be credited." 

Rule 12. — The verb to be, when followed by the in- 
finitive mood, or the particle that, should have a comma 
after it: as, "The most prudent course is, to withdraw 
from the country." "My desire is, that you go immedi- 
atelv." 

Rule 13. — When a verb or another part of speech is 
understood, a comma should be introduced in its place : 



116 English Grammar. 

as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; 
from curiosity, knowledge." 

Rule 14. — The words may, so, hence, again, first, sec- 
ondly, now, lastly, once more, in short, &c, should be 
generally separated from the context by commas : as, 
"He is my friend ; formerly, the supporter of my in- 
fancy; now, the guardian of my youth." 

Rule 15. — The simple sentences, and explanatory 
phrases that make up a compound sentence, should be 
generally separated from each other by commas : as, 
"Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity and 
evils of human life, we make that vanity, and increase 
those evils." 

Observation. — It is not easy to give rules, that will 
apply in every case, for the insertion of commas. As 
they are generally used to bring out the sense, their in- 
troduction will greatly depend on the meaning of the 
sentence. 



SEMICOLON 

The Semicolon is used for dividing compound sen- 
tences into two or more parts, not so closely connected 
as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little 
dependent on each other, as those which are distin- 
guished by a colon : as, "Straws swim upon the surface ; 
but pearls lie at the bottom." 

Note. — The Semicolon is sometimes used, when the preced- 
ing member of the sentence does not of itself give complete 
sense, but depends on the following clause ; and sometimes 
when the sense of that member would be complete without 
the concluding one : as, "Homer was the greater genius ; 
Virgil the better artist ; in the one we most admire the man ; 
in the other, the work." "Religion does not require that man 
should retreat from worldly affairs; much less, that he 
should neglect them." 

Question. — For what is the semicolon used? 



Punctuation. 117 

COLON 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or 
more parts, less closely connected than are those which 
are separated by a semicolon; but not so independent 
as are separate, distinct sentences. 

Note. — The colon may be used in the following cases : 

When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but 
followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustra- 
tion of the subject : as, "Nature felt her inability to extri- 
cate herself from the consequences of guilt : the gospel re- 
veals the plan of Divine interposition and aid." 

When several semicolons have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to make the concluding 
sentiment : as, "Religion sanctions it ; reason approves it ; 
justice demands it : these are considerations, which ought to 
have the greatest weight in your decision." 

The Colon is commonly used when an example, a quota- 
tion, &c, is introduced: as, "The Scripture gives us an ami- 
able representation of the Deity, in these words: 'God is 
love.' " "He was heard to say : 'I have done with the 
world.' " And sometimes, when a conjunction is understood : 
as, "Do not deceive yourselves longer : there is no room for 
hope." 

PERIOD 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not 
connected in construction with the following sentence, it 
is marked with a period. 

Note. — Some sentences are independent of each other, both 
in their sense and construction : as, "Fear God. Honor the 
king. Have charity toward all men." Others are independ- 
ent only in their grammatical construction : as, "The Su- 
preme Being changes not, either in his desire to promote our 
happiness, or in the plan of his administration. One light 
always shines upon us from above. One clear and direct 
path is pointed out to man. 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word : 
as, "M. S., P. S., N. B., A. D., O. S., N. S.," &c. 

Questions. — What is a colon? In what cases is it used ? 
What is a period? When is it used? 



118 English Grammar. 

Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, 
there are others that denote a different modulation of 
voice, in correspondence to the sense. These are : 

The Interrogation point ? 

The Exclamation point ! 

The Parenthesis () : 
as, 

"Are you sincere?" 

"How excellent is a grateful heart !" 

"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 

"Virtue alone is happiness below." 

The following characters are also frequently used in 
composition : 

An Apostrophe, marked thus ' : as, "tho', judg'd." 

am 
A Caret, marked thus a : as, "I a diligent." 

A Hyphen, which is thus marked - : as, "Lap-dog, to- 
morrow/' 

The Acute Accent, marked thus ' : as, "Fan'cy." 

The Grave Accent, thusv : as, "FaVor." 

The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable is the 
Macron - : as, "Bosy," and a short oue, this ^ : as, 
"Folly." This last mark is called a Breve. 

A Diaeresis, thus marked • ■ , shows that two vowels 
form, separate syllables : as, "Creator." 

A Section is thus marked §. 

A Paragraph, thus fl. 

A Quotation has two inverted commas at the begin- 
ning, and two direct ones at the end, of a phrase or pas- 
sage : as, 

"The proper study of mankind, is man.". 

Brackets serve to enclose a particular word or sen- 
tence. They are marked thus []. 

An Index or Hand Elr* points out a remarkable pas- 



Name some other marks used in composition. 



Punctuation. 119 

A Brace r unites three poetical lines ; or connects a 

number of words, in prose, with one common term. 

An Asterisk or little star * directs the reader to some 
note in the margin or at the foot of the page. 

An Ellipsis is thus marked : as, "K -g," 

for King. 

An Obelisk, or dagger, which is marked thus f , double 
Obelisk thus J, and Parallels thus ||, together with the 
letters of the alphabet, and figures, are used as refer- 
ences to footnotes or to marginal notes. 

CAPITALS 

The following words should begin with capitals : 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, para- 
graph, &c. 

2. The first word after a period, and frequently after 
the points of interrogation and exclamation. 

3. The names of the Deity: as, God, Jehovah, the Su- 
preme Being, &c. 

4. Proper names of persons, places, ships, &c. 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places : 
as, Grecian, Eoman, English, &c. 

6. The first word of an example, and of a quotation 
in a direct form: as, "Always remember this ancient 
maxim," 'Know thyself/ " 

7. The first word of every verse in poetry. 

8. The pronoun I, and the interjection ! 

9. Words of particular importance: as, the Eeforma- 
tion, the Eestoration, the Eevolution. 

10. Words contracted: as, Mr., Mrs., Dr., Cr., A. D., 
P. S. Esq., &c. 

EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION 

Section I. — Sentences requiring the Comma. 

Rule I. Many of the pretended friendships in youth are 
mere combinations in pleasure. The indulgence of harsh 
dispositions is the introduction to future misery. 



120 English Grammar. 

Rule II. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to 
mutual enjoyment. Charity like the sun brightens all its 
objects. Trials in this stage of being are the lot of man. 

Rule III. Reason virtue answer one great aim. The hus- 
band wife and children suffered extremely. Health peace a 
moderate fortune and a few friends make up the sum of 
temporal felicity. Temperance, and industry will gain a 
competency. A religious sensible and well educated woman. 
He advised exhorted reasoned and entreated his friend. 
Virtue supports in adversity moderates in prosperity. He 
reads, and writes well. 

Rule IV. His talents formed for great enterprises could 
not fail of rendering him conspicuous. All mankind compose 
one family assembled under the eye of one common fattier. 

Rule V. He may rest assured that by the steady pursuit 
of virtue we shall obtain our end. If from any external 
cause a man's mind be disturbed. 

Rule VI. Continue my child to practice virtue. To you 
my respected friends I am much indebted. 

Rule VII. Peace of mind being restored we may smile at 
misfortune. Charles being absent the business was con- 
cluded without him. To enjoy present pleasure he sacri- 
ficed his future ease. To confess the truth I am to blame. 

Rule VIII. Hope the balm of life soothes us under every 
misfortune. Joseph the patriarch is an illustrious example 
of chastity and resignation. 

Rule IX. The more a man speaks of himself the less he 
likes to hear others spoken of. Nothing more strongly incul- 
cates resignation than the experience of our own inability to 
guide ourselves. 

Rule X. One of the noblest of the Christian virtues is 
"to love our enemeis." Remember this proverb "Know 
thyself." 

Rule XI. The gentle mind is like the smooth stream 
which reflects every object in its just proportions. They who 
raise envy will easily incur censure. 

Rule XII. The greatest misery is to be condemned by our 
own hearts. His highest enjoyment was to relieve the dis- 
tressed and good. It is a fact that we must die. 

Rule XIII. Intemperance leads to want, from want to 
misery from misery to sickness and from sickness to death. 

Rule XIV. Be assured then that order shall prevail. 
I will proceed secondly to point out our position. Finally, I 
will repeat what I have already said. 

Rule XV. To improve time while we are blessed with 
health will soothe the bed of sickness. Very often while we 
are complaining of the vanity and evils of life we make 
that vanity and increase those evils. 



Punctuation. 121 

Section II. — Sentences requiring Semicolon and Comma. 

Ihe path of truth is plain and safe the path of falsehood 
is a perplexing maze. The passions are the chief destroyers 
of our peace the storms and tempests of the moral world. 
Levity is frequently the forced product of folly or vice 
cheerfulness the natural offspring of wisdom and virtue. 

Section III. — Sentences requiring Colon, &c. 

The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice super- 
stition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the 
mind with bad passions superstition which fills it with 
imaginary terrors idleness which loads it with tediousness 
and distrust. 

A metaphor is a comparison expressed in an abridged 
form but without any of the words that denote comparison 
as "To the upright there ariseth light in darkness." 

Section IV. — Sentences requiring the Period, &c. 

The absence of evil is real good Worldly pleasures when 
too eagerly sought after tend to corrupt the heart Feeding 
the hungry clothing the naked and comforting the afflicted 
afford true pleasure to the virtuous mind Remember thy 
Creator in the days of thy youth I know this my friend 
that I have committed an error 

Section V. — Sentences requiring Capitals, &c. 

History informs us That constantine The great, After his 
advancement to Sole Dominion of the roman world, openly 
professed The christian faith, you know, that i wish to 
cultivate your Acquaintance, solomon, the Son of david, 
built the Temple of .Jerusalem ; he was the richest Monarch 
of the jews. To whom was the money paid. 

regard the World with cautious eye, 
nor Raise your expectations high, 
see That the Balanced scales be such 
You neither fear nor hope too much 

Section VI. — Promiscuous examples. 

When Socrates was asked what man approached the 
nearest to perfect happiness he answered That man who 
has the fewest wants. She who studies her glass neglects 
her heart. Between Passion and Lying there is not a Fin- 
gers breadth. 

Addison has remarked with equal Piety and Truth that 
the Creation is a perpetual Feast to the Mind of a Good 
Man. 



122 English Grammar. 

The laurels of the Warrior are dyed in Blood and bedewed 
with the Tears of the Widow and the Orphan. Between 
Fame and true Honor a Distinction is to be made The 
former is a loud and noisy Applause the latter a more 
silent and internal homage Fame floats on the Breadth 
of the Multitude Honor rests on the judgment of the Think- 
ing Fame May give Praise while it withholds esteem true 
Honor implies esteem mingled with respect The one regards 
particular distinguished Talents the other looks up to the 
whole character 

If I am right thy grace impart 

Still in the right to stay 
If I am wrong O teach my heart 

To find that better way 

Save me alike from foolish pride 

Or impious discontent 
At aught thy wisdom has denied 

Or aught thy goodness lent 

Know then this truth enough for man to know 

Virtue alone is happiness below 

Tho only point where human bliss stands still 

And tastes the good without the fall to ill 

Where only merit constant pay receives 

Is blest in what it takes and what it gives 

The joy unequalld if its end it gain 

And if it lose attended with no pain 

Without satiety tho e er so blest 

And but more relish d as the more distress d 



EXERCISES. 

Instances of false Syntax. 

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet 
if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he will be for- 
given. 

On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which 
exist among men. 

The property of James, I mean his books and furniture, 
were wholly destroyed. 

This prodigy of learning, this scholar, critic, and anti- 
quarian, were entirely destitute of breeding and civility. 

That writer has given an account of the manner, in which 
Christianity has formerly been propagated among the 
heathens. 

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to 
eternity. 



Promiscuous Exercises. 123 

Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, 
shall deliver us from it, in due time. 

By these attainments are the master honored, and the 
scholars encouraged. 

The sea appeared to be more than usually agitated. 

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists under- 
stand the nature of the religion they reject. 

Time and chance happeneth to all men; but every person 
do not consider who govern those powerful causes. 

The active mind of man never or seldom rests satisfied 
with their present condition, however prosperous. 

Habits must be acquired of temperance and of self-denial, 
that we may be able to resist pleasure, and to endure pain, 
when either of them interfere with our duty. 

An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. 

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our 
own hearts. 

Thou art the Messiah, the Son of God, who was to come 
into the world, and hast been so long promised and desired. 

Thomas disposition is better than his brothers; and he 
appears to be the happiest man; but s^ine degree of trouble 
is all mens portion. 

Though remorse sleep sometimes during prosperity, it will 
awake surely in adversity. 

It is an invariable law to our present condition, that 
every pleasure that are pursued to excess, convert them- 
selves into poison. 

If a man brings into the solitary retreat of age, a vacant 
and unimproved mind, where no knowledge dawns, no ideas 
rise, which within itself has nothing to feed upon, many a 
heavy and many a comfortless day he must necessarily pass. 

I cannot yield to such dishonorable conduct, neither at 
the present moment of difficulty, nor, I trust, under no cir- 
cumstances whatever. 

There is not, nor ought not to be, such a thing as con- 
structive treason. 

He is a new created knight, and his dignity sits awkward 
on him. 

Hatred or revenge are things deserving of censure wher- 
ever they are found to exist. 

If you please to employ your thoughts on that subject, 
you would easily conceive our miserable condition. 

His speech contains one of the grossest and infamousest 
calumnies which ever was uttered. 

Those two authors have each of them their merit. 

James was resolved to not indulge himself in such a 
cruel amusement. 

Calumny and detraction are sparks, which if you do not 
blow, they will go out of themselves. 



124 English Grammar. 

That celebrated work was nearly ten years published, 
before its importance was at all understood. 

A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of 
nature, with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with 
more grandeur than if they were adjusted to one another 
with the accuratest symmetry. 

They that honor me, I will honor, and them that despise 
me shall be lightly esteemed. 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense. 
Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence. 

When we succeed in our plans, its not to be attributed 
always to ourselves ; the aid of others often promote the 
end, and claim our acknowledgment. 

Their intentions were good ; but lacking prudence, they 
missed the mark for which they aimed. 

I have not, nor shall I consent to a proposal so unjust. 

This treaty was made at earl Moreton the governor's 
castle. 

Be especially careful that thou givest no offence to the 
aged or helpless. 

The business was no sooner opened, but it was cordially 
acquiesced in. 

If he does but approve my endeavors it will be an ample 
reward. 

I intended to have written the letter, before he urged me 
to it; and, therefore, he has not all the merit of it. 

No human happiness is so complete, as does not contain 
some imperfection. 

His father can not hope for this success, unless his son 
gives better proofs of genius, or applies himself with inde- 
fatigable labor. 

The house framed a remonstrance, where they spoke 
with great freedom of the king's prerogative. 

This is the person who we are so much obliged to, and 
who we expected to have seen, when the favor was con- 
ferred. 

He is a person of great property, but does not possess the 
esteem of his neighbors. 

They were solicitous to ingratiate with those who it was 
dishonorable to favor. 

The great adversity which takes place anions; men, is not 
owing to a distinction that nature made in their original 
powers, as much as to the superior diligence with which 
some have improved these powers beyond others. 

Not a creature is there that moves, nor a vegetable that 
grows, but what, when minutely examined, furnished mate- 
rials of pious admiration, 



Promiscuous Exercises. 125 

What can be the reason of the committee having delayed 
this business? 

I know not whether Charles was the author, but I under- 
stood it fr be he. 

A good and well cultivated mind is far more preferable 
than rank or riches. 

Neither flatter nor contemn the rich or the great. 

You must be sensible that there is, and can be no other 
person but me. who could give the information desired. 

To be patient, resigned, and thankful, under afflictions 
and disappointments, demonstrate genuine piety. Alvarez 
was a man of corrupt principles, and of detestable conduct; 
and, what is still worse, gloried in his shame. 

As soon as the sense of the Supreme Being is lost, so soon 
the great check is taken off which keep under restraint the 
passions of men. Mean desires, low pleasures, takes place of 
the greater and the nobler sentiments which reason and 
religion inspires. 

We should be careful not to follow the example of many 
persons, to censure the opinions, manners, and customs 
of others, merely because they are foreign to us. 

There is, in that seminary, several students considerably 
skilled in mathematical knowledge. 

If Providence clothe the grass of the field, and shelters 
and adorns the flowers that everywhere grows wild amongst 
it, will he not clothe and protect his servants and children 
much more? 

Year after year steal something from us ; till the decaying 
fabric totters of itself, and crumbes at length into dust. 

I intended to have finished the letter before the bearer 
called, that he might not have been detained, but I was pre- 
vented by company. 

EXERCISES. 

The same words used as different parts of speech. 

Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. 

We may expect a calm after a storm. 

To prevent passion, is easier than to calm it. 

In these three sentences the word calm is used differ- 
ently. It is the use, not the form, of a word that puts it 
into one class or another. In the first, it describes the 
day, and is, therefore, an adjective. In the second, it is 
a name, and also has an article before it ; hence it is a 
noun. In the third, it suggests action; therefore, it is a 



126 English Grammar. 

verb. Moreover, it has before it the sign of the infini- 
tive. The remaining sentences should be considered in a 
similar manner. 

Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. 
He labored to still the tumult. 

The few and the many have their prepossessions. 
Few days pass without some clouds. 

Much money is corrupting. 

Think much, and speak little. 

He has seen much of the world, and been much caressed. 

His years are more than hers ; but he has not more knowl- 
edge. 

The more we are blessed, the more grateful we should be. 
The desire of getting more is rarely satisfied. 

He has equal knowledge, but inferior judgment. 

She is his inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence. 

Damp air is unwholesome. 

Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. 

Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. 

Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable. 
They are yet young, and must suspend their judgment yet 
awhile. 

Every thing loves its like. 

Behave yourselves like men. 

We are too often inclined to like pernicious company. 

He may go or stay as he likes. 

They strive to learn. 

He goes to and fro. 

To his wisdom we owe our privileges. 

The proportion is ten to one. 

He served them with his utmost ability. 
When we do our utmost, no more is required. 

I will submit, for submission brings peace. 
It is for our health to be temperate. 

! for better times. 

1 have a regard for him. 

He is esteemed, both on his own account, and on that of 
his parents. 

Both of them deserve praise. 

March brings breezes loud and shrill. 
"March on !" commanded the captain. 



Appendix. 127 



APPENDIX 

RULES FOR ASSISTING YOUNG PERSONS TO WRITE CLEARLY 
AND ACCURATELY. 

PERSPICUITY 

Perspicuity, or clearness, is the fundamental quality of 
style : a quality so essential in every kind of writing that, 
for the lack of it, nothing can atone. We are pleased 
with an author who frees us from the fatigue of search- 
ing for his meaning; who carries us through his subject 
without any embarrassment or confusion; whose style 
flows like a limpid stream, through which we see thfe very 
bottom. 



CHAPTEE I. 

Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression. 

These qualities of style require the following proper- 
ties : Purity, Propriety and Precision. 

Section I.— PURITY 

Purity of style consists in the use of such words and 
phrases as belong to the idiom of the language which we 
speak ; in opposition to words and phrases that are taken 
from other languages, or that are ungrammatical, obso- 
lete, new coined, &c. All such words and phrases as the 
following should be avoided: Quoth he; I ivist not; ere- 
while; hauteur, for haughtiness; nolitesse, for politeness, 
&c. In poetic diction some of these terms would be re- 
garded as appropriate, but beginners need not trouble 
themselves about the vocabulary of poets. 



128 English Grammar. 

Section H— PROPRIETY 

Propriety of language consists in the selection of 
such words as the best usage has appropriated to those 
ideas which we intend to express by them. The follow- 
ing are the rules for propriety : 

Rule 1. — Avoid low expressions: such as topsy-turvy, 
hurly-burly, pellmell, currying favor, left to shift for 
themselves, &c. 

Rule 2. — In the same sentence, be careful not to use 
the same word too frequently, nor in different senses : as, 
A person may have an air, which proceeds from a knowl- 
edge of the matter before him, which may naturally pro- 
duce some motion of head or body , which might become 
the bench better than the bar. 

The repetition of + he pronoun which, throws obscurity 
over the whole sentence. "Charity expands our hearts 
in love to God and man: it is by the virtue of charity 
that the rich are blessed, and the poor supplied." The 
word charity is improperly used in two different senses : 
for the highest benevolence and for almsgiving. 

Rule 3. — Avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. 

Technical terms being used only by a peculiar class, 
we should never employ them, but when we know they 
will be understood. To say, "We tack'd to the larboard, 
and stood off to sea," would be expressing ourselves very 
obscurely to those who do not understand terms of sea- 
manship. 

Rule 4. — Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words: as, 
"He aimed at nothing less than the crown." 

This sentence may denote either "Nothing inferior to 
the crown could satisfy his ambition ;" or, "That the ob- 
taining of the crown was the least of his ambitions :" and 
so for the expression, "I will have mercy, and not sac- 
rifice." 

Rule 5. — Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words 
or phrases : as, "This temper of mind keeps our under- 
standing tight about us." 



Appendix. 129 

It is not easy to determine the meaning of this sen- 
tence, or whether it has any meaning whatever. 

Rule 6. — Avoid all those words and phrases which are 
not adapted to the ideas you mean to communicate, or 
which are less significant than others, of those ideas : as, 

"He feels all the sorrow that can arrive at man;" it 
should be, "happen to man." "We assent to the beauty 
of the objects and we acknowledge the truth of the prop- 
osition ;" better, "We acknowledge the beauty and assent 
to the truth." "A traveler observes the most striking 
objects ; a general remarks all the motions of the enemy ;" 
better thus, "A general observes; a traveler remarks." 

Section ni.— PRECISION 

Precision in writing consists in retrenching superflui- 
ties and in pruning the expression, so as to exhibit 
neither more nor less than an exact copy of the writer's 
idea. The following are the most general rules for pre- 
cision : 

Rule 1. — The words used, should exactly express the 
idea which the author intends to convey. 

Rule 2.— They should express that idea fully and com- 
pletely. 

Rule 3. — They should express that idea, and nothing 
more. 

The human mind never can view, clearly and dis- 
tinctly, more than one object at the same time. If it 
must look at two or three together, especially objects that 
bear resemblance, it finds itself confused and embar- 
rassed. It cannot clearly perceive in what they agree 
and in what they differ. All subjects do not require an 
equal degree of precision. In those that are familiar, 
there is no risk of mistaking the sense of the author, 
though every word is not exact. 

A great source of loose style arises from the injudi- 
cious use of words which are improperly termed synony- 
mous. They agree in expressing one principal idea ; but 



130 English Grammar. 

they most generally express it with some diversity of cir- 
cumstance. The following are instances which will 
show the difference in the meaning of words reputed 
synonymous. 

Custom, Habit. — By custom, we mean the frequent 
repetition of the same act ; by habit, the effect which that 
repetition produces on the mind or body. By the custom 
of walking the streets, one acquires the habit of idleness. 

Pride, Vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves; 
vanity makes us desire the esteem of others. 

Haughtiness, Disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on 
the high opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on 
the low opinion we have of others. 

Wisdom, Prudence. — Wisdom leads us to speak and to 
do what is proper; prudence prevents us from speaking 
or acting improperly. 

Tranquillity, Peace, Calm. — Tranquillity represents a 
situation free from trouble; peace, the same situation 
with respect to any cause that might interrupt it; calm, 
with regard to a disturbed situation going before or fol- 
lowing it. 



CHAPTEE II. 



Perspicuity and Accuracy in the construction of 
Sentences. 

In general, sentences should be neither very long, nor 
very short; long sentences require close attention to 
make us clearly perceive the connection of the several 
parts; and short ones have a tendency to break the sense 
and weaken the connection of thought. A succession of 
either long or short sentences should be avoided ; but by 
a proper mixture of both, the ear will be gratified, and 
animation given to style. The things most essential in 
an accurate and perfect sentence are Clearness, Unity, 
Strength, and A Judicious Use of the Figures of Speech. 



Appendix. 131 

Section I— CLEARNESS 

Whatever leaves the mind in suspense, as to the 
meaning, should be avoided. Obscurity arises from two 
causes; either from a wrong choice of words, or from a 
careless arrangement of them. The following rules may 
serve, in some degree, to direct the learner with regard 
to the proper disposition of words in a sentence. 

Rule 1. — Let those words or members which are 
clearly related be placed in the sentence as near to each 
other as possible, so that their mutual relation may 
clearly appear. 

Rule 2.— Never crowd too many circumstances to- 
gether, but rather intersperse them in different parts of 
the sentence, joined with the principal words on which 
they depend. 

Obscurity frequently arises from a wrong position of 
the adverbs, relative pronouns, and particles that express 
the connection of different parts of speech, as in the fol- 
lowing examples : "The Romans understood liberty at 
least, as well as we." These words are capable of two 
different meanings, according as the emphasis, in read- 
ing them, is laid upon liberty, or at least. The construc- 
tion should be, "The Eomans understood liberty as well, 
at least, as we." "This kind of wit, among our country- 
men, about a century ago, was very much in vogue, who 
did not use it for any other purpose than purely for the 
sake of being witty :" it should be, "About a century ago, 
this sort of wit was very much in vogue among our coun- 
trymen, who/ 3 &c. The relative should, generally, be 
placed immediately after its antecedent. 

Much . obscurity sometimes arises from the too fre- 
quent use of the pronouns: as, "Men look with an evil 
eye upon the virtues of others, and think that their repu- 
tation obscures them, and their commendable qualities 
stand in their light; and, therefore, they do what they 
can, to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of 
their virtues may not obscure them. This is altogether 
careless writing, and should be avoided. 



132 English Grammar. 

Section II THE UNITY OF A SENTENCE 

To preserve the unity of a sentence, the following rules 
should be observed. 

Rule 1. — During the course of a sentence, let the 
scene be changed as little as possible. 

"We should not be hurried from person to person, or 
from object to object. There is commonly, in every sen- 
tence, some person or thing, which is the governing 
word; this should be continued, if possible, from the 
beginning to the end. 

Rule 2. — Never crowd into one sentence things that 
have so little connection that they could bear to be di- 
vided into two or three sentences. 

The violation of this rule tends so much to obscure the 
sense, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences, 
than by one that is overloaded and embarrassed. For 
instance, an author tells us : "Archbishop Tillotson died 
in the last year. He was exceedingly beloved by King 
William and Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop 
of Lincoln, to succeed him." Who would expect the lat- 
ter part of the sentence to follow as a consequence of the 
former ? 

Rule 3. — Avoid all unnecessary parentheses. 

On some occasions, when the sense is not too long sus- 
pended by them, and when they are introduced in the 
proper place, they may add both to the vivacity and to 
the energy of the sentence. But for the most part their, 
effect is bad ; they are wheels within wheels ; sentences in 
the midst of sentences ; a perplexed method of disposing 
of some thought which the writer, for the lack of judg* 
ment, did not introduce in its proper place. 

The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and 
proper : 

"And was the ransom paid? It was; and paid 
("What can exalt the bounty more?) for thee." 

But in the following sentence we become sensible of an 
impropriety in the use. of it. "If your hearts secretly, re- 
proach you for the wrong choice you have made (as there 



Appendix. 133 

is time for repentance and retreat ; and a return to wis- 
dom is always honorable), bethink yourselves that the 
evil is not irreparable." 

The following very general rule may be given for the 
unity of a sentence : 

Make the parts of a sentence correspond to each other ; 
and preserve a regular and dependent construction 
throughout. 

Section III THE STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE 

By the strength of a sentence is meant, such a disposi- 
tion and management of the several words and members, 
as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage, and 
give to every word, every member, its due weight and 
force. To promote the strength of a sentence, the fol- 
lowing rules should be observed : 

Rule 1. — The sentence should be pruned of all redun- 
dant words and members. Tautology is sometimes use- 
ful, though it is generally useless. 

It is a general maxim, that any word which does not 
add some importance to the meaning of a sentence al- 
ways injures it. Care should, therefore, be taken to 
avoid synonymous words, circumlocutions, tautologies 
and the expression of unnecessary circumstances. 

The following sentences are faulty : "In the Attic com- 
monwealth, it was the privilege and birthright of every 
citizen and poet, to read aloud and in public." Better 
thus : "In the Attic commonwealth, it was the privilege 
of every citizen to read in public." "They returned back 
again to the same city from which they came forth ;" bet- 
ter, "They returned to the city whence they came." The 
words, hack, again, same, from and forth, are all unnec- 
essary. 

Rule 2. — The second rule is to attend particularly to 
the use of conjunctions, relatives and all particles em- 
ployed for transition and connection. 

The little words, but, and, if, by, of, or, then, which, 
whose, &c., are frequently the most important words in a 



134 English Grammar. 

sentence. They are the joints or hinges upon which the 
sentence turns, and, of course, much of its strength will 
depend on these particles. So numerous are the forms 
in which they are used, that respecting them no particu- 
lar system of rules can be given. With regard to the 
particle and, however, it may be observed, that the un- 
necessary repetition of it tends to enfeeble style ; and on 
some occasions, when the connection is clear without it, 
the expression is more forcible and rapid than if the 
particle had been used : as, "I came, I saw, I conquered." 

Rule 3. — The third rule is, to dispose of the capital 
word or words so that they may make the greatest im- 
pression. 

The important words, for the most part, are placed in 
the beginning of the sentence: as, in the following ex- 
amples : "Silver and gold, I have none ; but what I have, 
I will give you." "Your fathers, where are they?" It 
is evident that the first sentence derives much of its force 
from the unusual arrangement of the words. It is of 
the nature of an inversion. The place of greatest em- 
phasis in a sentence will be discussed presently. In some 
instances the beginning is the place of greatest empha- 
sis ; in most cases, however, it is the end. The last im- 
pression will generally be the strongest. 

Rule 4. — The fourth rule is, that a weaker assertion 
or proposition should never come after a stronger one; 
and that, when a sentence consists of two members, the 
longer should, generally, be the concluding one. 

In general, it is agreeable to find a sentence rising in 
its progress, and in importance, to the very last word, 
when this construction can be managed without affecta- 
tion. 

Rule 5. — A sentence should never be concluded with 
an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word. 

The following sentences are, therefore, inaccurate: 
"Avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty of ;" 
it should be, of "which wise men," &c. "He may have 
been unfortunate in his business, but he failed through 



Appendix. 135 

his own neglect, to say no worse/' The last phrase, to 
say no worse, has a bad effect at the end of the sentence. 
Care should be taken not to conclude a sentence with the 
words, of, to, with, by, it, about, &c. 

Rule 6. — The sixth rule relating to the strength of a 
sentence, is, that in the members of a sentence, where 
two things are compared or contrasted ; where either a 
resemblance or an opposition is intended to be expressed ; 
some resemblance in the language and construction 
should be preserved. For, when the things themselves 
correspond to each other, we naturally expect to find a 
similar correspondence in the words. 

Thus, when it is said, "The wise man is happy when he 
gains his own approbation; the fool, when he recom- 
mends himself to the applause of those about him;" the 
opposition would have been more regular, if it had been 
expressed thus : "The wise man is happy when he gains 
his own approbation; the fool, when he gains that of 
others." 

"A friend exaggerates one's virtues; an enemy in- 
flames his crimes." Better thus : "A friend exaggerates 
one's virtues ; an enemy, his crimes." y 

Rule 7. — Attend to the sound, the harmony and easy 
flow of the words and members of the sentence. 

Sound is a quality much inferior to sense, yet it is one 
which must not be disregarded. For, as long as sounds 
are the vehicles or conveyances for our ideas, there will 
be a very considerable connection between the idea which 
is conveyed, and the nature of the sound which conveys 
it. Pleasing ideas, and forcible reasoning, can hardly 
be transmitted to the mind, by means of harsh and dis- 
agreeable sounds. 

If we would speak forcibly, we must avoid the use of 
such words as the following : 1. Such as are composed 
of words already compounded, the several parts of which 
are not easily and, therefore, not closely, united: as, 
<e Unsuccessfulness, wrongheadedness, tenderheartedness." 
2. Such as have the syllables which immediately follow 



136 English Grammar. 

the accented syllable crowded with consonants that do 
not easily coalesce : as, Questionless, chroniclers, con- 
venticlers." 3. Such as have too many syllables follow- 
ing the accented syllable : as, "Primarily, cursorily, sum- 
marily, peremptoriness" 4. Such as have short or 
unaccented syllables very much alike : as, "Holily, sillily, 
lowlily." 

The opening sentence of a paragraph should make a 
general statement of the nature of the theme to be con- 
sidered. If this is not done, however, in the first sen- 
tence, it should not be too long postponed. This remark 
applies to only the beginning of a discourse. The stu- 
dent ought first to examine the number of words in a sen- 
tence ; then the order of the words, the propriety of their 
use, and finally the distribution of the emphasis. For 
this purpose a sentence may be regarded as consisting of 
three parts, viz., a beginning, a middle and an end. In 
the opinion of the- best rhetoricians, the end of a sentence 
is the place of greatest emphasis; next in importance is 
the beginning. The middle is the place that is least em- 
phatic. As every sentence has parts that are important, 
and other parts of less consequence, the most important 
idea should be placed at the end ; that next in importance 
should be put at the beginning, and the unimportant ideas 
in the middle. By an explicit or an implicit reference, 
every sentence should be connected with everv other in 
the paragraph. 

Section III— TROPES OR FIGURES OF SPEECH 

The fourth requisite of good composition is a judi- 
cious use of the Figures of Speech. 

In general, a Trope implies some departure from 
simplicity of expression ; the idea which we mean to con- 
vey is expressed in a particular manner, and with some 
circumstances added, which renders the impression more 
strong and vivid. When we say, "A good man enjoys 
comfort in the midst of adversity/' we express our 
thoughts in the simplest manner ; but when we say, "To 
the upright there ariseth a light in the hour of dark- 



Appendix. 137 

ness," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative 
style; light is put for comfort, and darkness for ad- 
versity. 

The principal advantages of the Figures of Speech 
are the following : First, They enrich language, and ren- 
der it more copious. Second, They frequently give us a 
much clearer and more striking view of the principal 
object than we could have if it were expressed in simple 
terms and divested of its accessory idea. 

The following are the principal, viz. : 

Metaphor, Synecdoche, Hyperbole, 

Allegory, Personification, Exclamation, 

Comparison, Apostrophe, Irony, 

Mentonymy, Antithesis, Climax. 

A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the re- 
semblance which one thing bears to another : as when we 
say of a great man, "He is the pillar of the State." 

The following rules should be observed in the use of 
the Metaphor : 

Rule 1. — They should not be used too profusely, and 
should always be such as accord with the strain of our 
sentiment. 

Rule 2. — Care should be taken that the resemblance, 
which is the foundation of metaphor, be clear and per- 
spicuous, not far-fetched or difficult to discover." 

Rule 3. — Metaphorical and plain language should 
never be jumbled together. 

Rule 4. — Two inconsistent metaphors should never 
meet in one subject : as, 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 

Addison. 

The muse, figured as a horse, may be bridled; but 
when we speak of launching, we make it a ship ; and by 
no force of imagination can it be supposed both a horse 
and a ship at the same moment. 



138 English Grammar. 

Allegory. — An allegory may be regarded as a meta- 
phor continued through a series of sentences. The rules 
for the metaphor may, in general, be applied to allegory; 
indeed, the only material difference between the two 
figures, is, that a metaphor always explains itself by 
words that are connected with it in their proper mean- 
ing: as, "Achilles was a lion in battle;" here the word 
lion is sufficiently interpreted by the mention of Achilles. 

The Scriptures contain many beautiful examples of 
allegory ; we shall select one from the 79th Psalm, where 
the people of Israel are represented under the image of a 
vine: 

"Thou hast brought a vineyard out of Egypt; thou hast 
cast out the Gentiles and planted it. Thou wast the guide 
of its journey in its sight ; thou plantedst the roots thereof, 
and it filled the land. The shadow of it covered the hills; 
and the branches thereof the cedars of God. It stretched 
forth its branches unto the sea, and its boughs unto the 
river. Why hast thou broken down the hedge thereof, so 
that all they who pass by the way do pluck it? The boar 
out of the wood hath laid it waste ; and a singular wild 
beast hath devoured it. Turn again, O God of hosts, look 
down from heaven, and see, and visit this vineyard." 

Simile. — Comparison, or Simile, is the resemblance 
between two objects formally expressed and generally 
pursued more fully than the nature of the metaphor ad- 
mits : as, "True virtue is like gold in the furnace : the 
more it is heated, the brighter it shines." "As the moun- 
tains are about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about 
His people." 

Metonymy. — Metonymy is the substitution of the 
name of the cause for the effect, the container for the 
thing contained, the sign for the thing signified : as, "He 
read Milton;" that is, "Milton's works." "Gray hairs 
should be respected ;" "gray hairs" are put for "old age." 
"The kettle boils;" "kettle" for water 

Synecdoche. — By Synecdoche is meant the substitu- 
tion of a part for the whole, or a whole for a part : as, "A 
fleet of twenty sail" Sail, for ships; and when we use 
the head for the person; waves for the sea, &c. 



Appendix. 139 

Personification. — Personification is that figure by 
which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects : 
as, "The earth smiles with plenty;" "History informs 
us ;" "The desert shall rejoice and bloom as the rose." 

Apostrophe. — Apostrophe is a turning off from the 
regular subject to address some absent person or thing: 
as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. death ! where 
is thy sting ? grave ! where is thy victory ?•" 

Antithesis. — Antithesis is a figure which strengthens 
the language and heightens the effect by contrasting ob- 
jects of opposite characters : as, "If you wish to enrich 
a man, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish 
his desires." "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, 
yet not dull." 

Hyperbole. — The Hyperbole consists in magnifying 
an object beyond its natural bounds : as, when we say, 
"As swift as the wind;' "As quick as lightning ;" "White 
as snow." 

Hyperboles are of two kinds; either such as are em- 
ployed in description, or such as are suggested by the 
warmth of passion. All passions without exception, love, 
terror, amazement, indignation, and even grief, throw 
the mind into confusion, exaggerate their objects, and, of 
course, prompt a hyperbolical style. Hence in Milton 
the following sentiments of Satan, as strongly as they 
are described, contain nothing but what is natural and 
proper, exhibiting the picture of a spirit agitated with 
rage and despair. 

Me, miserable! which way shall I fly 
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? 
Which way I fly is Hell, myself am Hell ; 
And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, 
Still threatening to devour me, opens wide, 
To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven. 

The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the 
size of their leader. "I saw their chief," says the scout 
of Ossian, "tall as a rock of ice; his spear the blasted fir; 



140 English Grammar. 

his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a 
cloud of mist on the hill." 

Exclamation. — Exclamation is an expression of some 
sentiment produced by strong emotions of the mind: 
such as those of surprise, admiration, joy, grief, &c. : as, 
"0 wretched man that I am I" "Ah me, miserable !" 

Irony. — Irony is a figure, which consists in expressing 
ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts, not, 
however, with a view to deceive, but to add force to our 
observations: as, when we reprove a person for negli- 
gence by saying, "You have taken great care, indeed." 

Ironical language has often a very strong effect, par- 
ticularly when used by way of an exhortation ; as, for in- 
stance, when a person has set forth the inconsistency of a 
thing, he concludes with a feigned encouragement to 
pursue it. Exclamation and Irony are sometimes united : 
as, in Cicero's oration for Balbus, where he derides his 
accuser by saying, "0 excellent interpreter of the law! 
master of antiquity! corrector and amender of our con- 
stitution I" 

Climax. — Climax consists in heightening all the cir- 
cumstances of an object or action which we desire to 
place in a strong light. 

Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he 
says : "It is a crime to put a Eoman citizen in bonds ; it 
is the height of guilt to scourge him: little less than 
parricide to put him to death: what name then shall I 
give to the act of crucifying him ?" 

There are several other figures, such as vision, or im- 
agery, which represent absent objects as actually present ; 
and interrogation, when a question is asked, not with the 
design of gaining information, but for the purpose of 
defying contradiction to something already stated. 

Balaam, addressing himself to Balak, says : "The Lord 
is not a man, that He should lie ; neither is He the son of 
a man, that He should repent. Hath He said it? and 
shall He not do it? Hath He spoken it? and shall He 
not make it good ? 



Appendix. 141 



EPISTOLARY WRITING 

As epistolary composition, or letter writing, is more 
generally used in society than any other, it deserves to be 
studied and practiced with more than ordinary care. 
Every person claiming the least pretentions to an Eng- 
lish education, should be able to write a good letter. It 
will not, therefore, be deemed inappropriate to introduce 
here a few observations, that may serve to direct the 
young in acquiring a graceful and elegant epistolary 
style. 

1. The first and fundamental requisite in epistolary 
style is, that it- should be natural, graceful and concise. 
The most elegant letters are those in which the language 
flows easily and without any appearance of study or affec- 
tation. 

2. The utmost care should be taken, that the orthog- 
raphy be correct. The misspelling of a single word is 
often sufficient to bring one under the suspicion of being 
illiterate. 

3. Punctuation should never be neglected, even in the 
shortest note to a friend; and care should be taken that 
the capital letters be properly used. 

4. In addresing a letter, note, &c, the following rules 
should be carefullv observed : 



AN ADDRESS TO ONE PERSON 

1. An address to a married lady should be Mrs. — as 
Mrs. J. Smith. - - _ 

2. An address to an unmarried lady should be Miss- — 
as Miss Brown. 

3. An address to a gentleman should be Mr. — as J4V. 
James Smith. 



142 English Grammar. 

AN ADDRESS TO TWO OR MORE PERSONS 

1. An address to two or more gentlemen of the same 
name, family, or firm, should be Messrs. — as The Messrs. 
Bond, Messrs. J. H. Carson & Co. Never abbreviate 



2. When two or more single ladies of the same name 
are to be addressed, Misses or Miss may be used : as, The 
Misses Brown or The Miss Browns. On this point au- 
thorities are not in entire agreement. 

3. In beginning a letter, let the name of your resi- 
dence and the date be at the top of the paper, and a 
little to the right; but in a card or note, the residence 
and date should be placed at the end of the written 
matter, but at the left of the paper. 

4. "With us the title Esq., the contraction of Esquire, 
is usually bestowed upon members of the bar. Judges 
are addressed as Honorable. The abbreviation Hon. is 
sufficient. The same title is used in addressing mem- 
bers of either the National or the State Legislatures. 
Thus, a letter intended for a Kepresentative in Con- 
gress may be addressed : 

Hon. John C. Williams, 

House of Representatives, 

Washington, D. C. 

or (for a Senator), 

Hon. William J. Brown, 
U. S. Senate Chamber, 

Washington, D. 0. 

Mr. and Esquire should not be used at the same time. 

MODELS 

A letter to an acquaintance on his recovery from a 
dangerous illness : 

Baltimore, January 8, 1850. 
Dear Sir: 

Give me leave to mingle my joy with that of all your 
friends and relatives, in the recovery of your health, and to 
join them in thanking God for continuing to your numerous 



Appendix. 143 

well-wishers, the benefits of your useful and valuable life. 
That He may long preserve you in healthy and favor all your 
undertakings, for the good of your worthy family, and the 
pleasure of your friends and acquaintances, is the hearty 
prayer of your admirer. 

Very truly yours, 

CHARLES W. DAVIS. 
John Abbot, Esq. 

A devoted friend would have been addressed as, "My 
dear John." A person whom we know slightly we would 
address as, "Dear Sir/' If the acquaintance was of 
longer standing, a proper form would be, "My dear 
Sir." The words kinsman or kinswoman may be sub- 
stituted for "relative." 

Eeply to the above : 

Baltimore, January 10, 1850. 
Dear Sir: 

Receive my warmest thanks for your kind congratulations. 
My return to health will be to me a greater source of 
pleasure, if I can contribute, in any manner, to the happi- 
ness of my friends, and particularly to that of you and 
yours. 

With my best wishes for your future happiness and 
welfare, I remain, 

Respectfully yours, 

JOHN ABBOT. 
Charles W. Davis, Esq. 

Cards and Notes are generally written in the third 
person — thus : 

Mr. Smith presents his respects to Mr. Morgan, and con- 
gratulates him on his safe arrival from his long and disas- 
trous voyage. Mr. S. regrets exceedingly that he cannot 
also include his congratulations for the complete success of 
the voyage. 

Boston, February 19, 1850. 

The Reply. 

Mr. Morgan acknowledges the receipt of Mr. Smith's kind 
note of congratulations, and thanks him for the interest he 
has manifested on the occasion. Although the voyage has 
not been so successful as could be wished, still Mr. M. has 
great reason to be thankful, that it has been of great bene- 
fit to his health. 

Boston, February 20, 1850. 



144 English Grammar. 

Invitation to Dine. 

Mr. Mason requests the pleasure of Mr. Smith's company 
at dinner, on Wednesday next, at 3 o'clock. 
Monday, February 12th. 

Reply. 

Mr. Smith has the honor to acknowledge the receipt of Mr. 
Mason's note, inviting him to dine on Wednesday next, at 
three o'clock, and takes great pleasure in accepting the 
invitation. 

Invitation to an Evening Party. 

Mrs. Hunter requests the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. 
Madison's company, on Tuesday evening, 15th instant. 
Friday, January 10th. 

Or thus: 

Miss R. would be happy to have the company of Miss K. 
on Wednesday evening next. Only a small party is expected. 
Monday Morning. 

A Note to a Young Lady. 

Mr. H. presents his compliments to Miss C, and requests 
the pleasure of her company to a Concert, on Friday evening 
next, at 7 o r clock. 

Tuesday Evening, January 10th. 

Reply, Declining the Invitation. 

Miss C. thanks Mr. H. for his politeness; but is sorry she 
can not accept his offer, being already engaged. 
"Wednesday Morning. 



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